Final Research Paper. Justin Jalea. Durham College. Human

FINAL RESEARCH PAPER JUSTIN JALEA DURHAM COLLEGE HUMAN RIGHTS DATE: APRIL 10, MONDAY 2017 PROSTITUTION: VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS AGAINST WOMEN Prostitution is considered as a control of taking part in sexual exercises with somebody for cash. In Canada, it is lawful to offer sexual administrations yet it is considered as a wrongdoing to purchase sexual administrations from others. When we talk about prostitution it is important to consider that which type of women is engaging in sexual activities for money. It is considered that the more than half of the women doing sex work is due to the sexual abuse during their childhood. Some of them are resulted from homelessness. Child abuse is considered as the†¦show more content†¦When prostitution is legitimized, all holds are banned. Ladies regenerative limits are sellable items, for instance. A radical new gathering of customers discover pregnancy a sexual turn-on and request bosom drain in their sexual experiences with pregnant ladies.we hear very little about the role of sex industry in creating a global sex market in the bodies of women and children. Instead we hear much about making prostitution in to a better job for women through regulation and legalizing, through unions of so called sex workers and campaigns which provide condoms to women in prostitution but cannot provide them with to prostitution. We hear much about how to keep women in prostitution but very little about how to help women get out from this. So women s and children s need campaigns to increase the awareness to stop prostitution and make better healthy community. The refinement amongst constrained and intentional prostitution is decisively what the sex business is advancing in light of the fact that it will give the business greater security and lawful dependability if these qualifications can be used to authorize prostitution, pimping and whorehouses. Ladies who bring charges against pimps and culprits will bear the weight of demonstrating that they were constrained. How will underestimated ladies ever have the capacity to demonstrate intimidation?

Welfare Reform Essay - 1456 Words

Many have argued and debated about a systematical program called welfare. Some perceive it as dead weight to our nation and they question whether the programs offered are helping the community. As taxpayers, the American populous funds contribute to welfare for others. Due to the large number of people who receive government assistance, it is not that simple to monitor every individual. However, I propose that welfare should be reformed. Society is abusing the access to social welfare and to prevent the downfall sure to come, the government needs to reform the accessibility and ownership of welfare because it betrays its creation; it is creating a dependent nation, and affects taxpayers and people who truly need government assistance.†¦show more content†¦Citizen of all financial levels from the poor, middle-class and even what some considered first-class, citizen commit welfare fraud.# In committing federal fraud, Americans risk severe punishment and extensive debt to pay. So one would think everyone who commits welfare fraud would be prosecuted and thrown in jail. Too many citizens receive welfare to monitor everyone, which is understandable. Is society responsible for the well-being of others who depend on another? If so, what is the cost to the rest of the community? Is the dependent able body citizen to be held in any way responsible for them selves? How far must poverty go before society is morally bound to act? Theses are the questions asked about welfare by taxpayers, as stated by Joseph Westfall. # Numerous question but we do not have a definite answer. Billions of dollars are collected for welfare yearly. The profits are involuntarily taken from taxpayers and redistributed to those demonstrating economic need. The problem lies in that from this system is anyone can reap profit from the money collected from taxpayer’s, even the very same taxpayers can fool the system. For instance, as I was researching information on welfare fraud, I ca me across the department of social service website. On this web page, it contained a list of fraudulent crimes by 13 people and among then was a women named Feleni F. Leota. In August 2008, Feleni F. Leota who worked two jobs making 19,000Show MoreRelatedWelfare Reform : The Welfare System1367 Words   |  6 PagesWelfare Reform What would happen if the government made changes to the welfare system? There are approximately 110,489,000 of Americans on welfare. Many people benefit from what the system has to offer: food stamps, housing, health insurance, day care, and unemployment. Taxpayers often argue that the individuals who benefit from the system, abuse the system; however, this is not entirely true. Many of the people who receive benefits really and truly need the help. Even though some people believeRead MoreWelfare Reform And The Welfare System2031 Words   |  9 Pages All throughout history welfare services have been available to the general public. While these benefits have changed over time, the basic intentions of the welfare system has stayed the same. The welfare system provides benefits and monetary assistance to those who qualify. Different acts over the past two hundred years have been amended in order to try to help the poor, and while not all have been practical and successful, many programs have indeed done an outstanding job in aiding those in needRead MoreWelfare Reform3205 Words   |  13 PagesWelfare Reform: A Permanent Solution or a Temporary Band-Aid? Welfare: handouts to the lazy, or a helping hand to those facing hard times? The debate continues, even in the face of sweeping welfare reform, which, for all of its sound and fury, has not helped or changed much. Whats wrong with welfare and how can we fix it? This is not a simple question, and there is no simple answer. However, one thing remains eminently clear. Welfare desperately needs to change. But where are we now? Are weRead MoreWelfare Reform Essay801 Words   |  4 PagesIs welfare a permanent solution or a temporary fix to a monumental epidemic in society today? Congress has implemented welfare reform legislation that simply has not helped or changed much. The question regarding the welfare system remains the same. What is wrong with welfare and how can it be fixed? This is not a simple question and does not have a simple answer. However, one thing is extremely clear; welfare is not working and desperately needs to change. The current welfare system is unfair toRead Mor eWelfare Reform Essays584 Words   |  3 PagesWelfare Reform Under the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA), Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) replaced AFDC, ending some Federal responsibility to welfare assistance. States operate their own programs; determine eligibility services to be provided to needy families, within Federal guidelines. The Federal government cannot regulate the conduct of states except to a few requirements, and states have a wide latitude in administering the programRead More Welfare Reform Essay2746 Words   |  11 PagesWelfare Reform The U.S. Congress kicked off welfare reform nationwide last October with the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, heralding a new era in which welfare recipients are required to look for work as a condition of benefits. http://www.detnews.com/1997/newsx/welfare/rules/rules.htm. Originally, the welfare system was created to help poor men, women, and children who are in need of financial and medical assistance. Over the years, welfare has becomeRead MoreWelfare Reform: A Matter of Public Debate2503 Words   |  10 PagesWelfare reform has been a matter of public debate for decades. Welfare is a result of America’s values to support one’s fellow man, but with the stark decline of the economy every state is feeling pressure and looking for new ways to save money. This pressure is manifesting as changes to welfare that are theorized to improve the quality of life for poor families, create a stronger workforce, and save taxpayers money. Th eory, however, is one thing, and practice is definitely another. This paper willRead MoreWelfare Reform Essay1040 Words   |  5 PagesWelfare has been around for than six decades. Since the beginning of its creation people have question whether the programs offered is helping the community. As American taxpayers, your funds contribute to welfare for others. Due to the large number of members who receives government assistants, it is not that simple to monitor every individual. But, I propose that welfare should be reformed. Society is abusing the access to social welfare and to change the downfall sure to come, the governmentRead MoreWelfare Reform : Social Welfare Policy1257 Words   |  6 Pages Social Welfare Policy Social Welfare Policy Analysis Eric Dean University of Arkansas Introduction Several states have recently begun to enact legislation that requires welfare recipients to submit to drug tests before they are eligible to receive any public assistance. The purpose of mandatory drug testing is to prevent the potential abuse of taxpayer money, help individuals with drug problems, and ensure that public money is not subsidizing drug habits (Wincup, 2014). WhileRead MoreWelfare Reform : The United States1457 Words   |  6 PagesWelfare Welfare s purpose should be to eliminate, as far as possible, the need for its own existence. Ronald Reagan said this statement on January of 1970 when the Los Angeles Times interviewed him (Williamson). Federal government funded welfare in the United States started in the 1930s during the Great Depression. Because of the vast numbers of people out of work and with insufficient funds to buy food for their families, President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved a program to give

Changing Behaviour †Managing Dynamic Environments

Question: Describe about the Changing Behaviour for Managing Dynamic Environments. Answer: Introduction Human Resource Development Fund in Saudi Arabia is a public organization, which aims at promoting sustainable and productive national workforce. They aim at developing and increasing the competitiveness in the economy in accordance with the public and private organizations. They provide trainings, upskilling and other beneficiary programs to the job seeker that would help them in analysing better results n the future (Hrdf.org.sa 2016). In this study, a new strategical framework would be analysed that would help in achieving the objectives of the organizations with more efficiency. Functional structure Nowadays Saudi Arabia is facing the challenge of high wealth along with contradicting high rate of unemployment in the nation. This problem has erupted due to the problem of low skills, low motivation and expectation of high salary (Nahm, 2015). Human resource development fund can frame an extensive training system for various category jobs in relation to their educational achievements done. This would help in pertaining and training the correct employees for their suited jobs. Building associations with various organizations would help them in gaining knowledge regarding the job vacancies of the economy, and adhering the right job to the right individual. The facilities of employment would be provided to the individual only after successful completion of the program. Pay for performance Before the generation of jobs, human resource development fund must categorise the employee payscale in accordance to their educational level. This would help in maintaining a clear segregation of payscale, thereby limiting their expectations towards salary. The use of rewards The intrinsic reward associated with the following strategy is that the organization can use the rewards of pertaining a better structure of employment training program, that would help the future workforce of the organization. As the payscale would be increasing with better education and skills of the employees, an initiative by the youth would be taken to raise their literacy level, thereby helping the economy as a whole, which would be considered as the extrinsic effect of the strategy to be implemented. Conclusion Human Resource Development Fund, with their aim of developing and increasing the competitiveness in the economy needs to start the initiative of framing a better training program for the jobseekers. This would facilitate the growth of the individuals along with the country as a whole. Reference . (2016). Hrdf.org.sa. Retrieved 23 November 2016, from https://www.hrdf.org.sa/ Nahm, A. Y. (2015). Encouraging migrant foreign workers in Saudi Arabia to participate in problem solving: the role of leadership, trust, and security.Middle East Journal of Management,2(4), 352-365.

Oddysey Essay Example For Students

Oddysey Essay Telemachus is unsure about his role as prince. He has always been told he is Odysseus son, but it isnt etched in stone. His mother could be deceiving him all along. Telemachus is still a young boy and is trying to grow into an adult. He has the potential to become a worthy king. This would be a very difficult task with no one that supports or loves you. Even the finest leaders need help and acceptance from others. He has to learn to work together with the people of his palace and turn it into something great. This is like the food chain one animal has to have the other animals or they wouldnt survive. Someone should take the head position and Telemachus is the one. Telemachus obviously believes Odysseys is his father, or else he would have never left to try and find him. His whole life has been centered around his father, and the great legend that he was. These are some big shoes for Telemachus to fill and he is hoping that Athena will guide him on the right path. Antinous how can I drive my mother from our house against her will, the one who bore me, reared me too. My father is worlds away, dead or alive, who knows imagine the high price Id have to pay Icarius if all on my own I send my mother home. Oh what I would suffer from her father. These are the only people Telemachus has known, and whether or not they are his family he will stick by them to the end. They may have some problems, but Telemachus is willing to deal with whatever comes his way. Fit out a ship with twenty oars, the best in sight, sail in quest of news of your long-lost father. First go down to Pylos, question old King Nestor, then cross over to Sparta, to red-haired Menelaus, of all the bronze-armored Achaeans the last man back. Now, if you hear your fathers alive and heading home, hard pressed as you are, brave out one more year. If you hear hes dead, no longer among the living, then back you come to the native land you love, raise his grave-mound, build his honors high with the full funera l rites that he deserves, and give your mother to another husband. This passage explains Telemachus and his whole dilemma. He is in search of the truth. In his journey Telemachus is going to encounter many difficulties, but he will also find out what really happened to his father. Telemachus has a hole in his life that needs to be repaired. By leaving on his mission and trying to bring closure to his story Telemachus will finally know the answer to his fathers whereabouts. His voyage will also help him to become a grown man that can take charge when other people are in need. Furthermore his actions will give him courage and strength to get rid of the suitors. They are plaguing his mother, yet nothing is being done. Hopefully Telemachus will realize what an important figure he is and take control of the task ahead. His father was a powerful and just man, and Telemachus has these same traits inside himself. He opts to be passive and complain about his problem to anyone with a willing ear. The suitors are enjoying themselves in his fathers palace and disgracing his honor. Telemachus should not let this madness go on any longer. There is only one thing holding back the true self of Telemachus and that is inspiration. All he needs is a push, and he receives this strength from the powerful godess Athena. She urges him to do what is right by taking action and trying to resolve his familys long hardship. Telemachus will only know the truth when he finds his father. His journey will be rough, yet in the end his dilemma will finally be resolved. .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 , .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 .postImageUrl , .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 , .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80:hover , .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80:visited , .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80:active { border:0!important; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80:active , .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80 .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub46c3f42500ae8904b78f7ca437a4d80:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Day of Impending Doom: School Again Essay

Kahn and Verifiability

Comparing A Christmas Carol with The Christmas Party †English Essay

Comparing A Christmas Carol with The Christmas Party – English Essay Free Online Research Papers Comparing ‘A Christmas Carol’ with ‘The Christmas Party’ English Essay In this essay I will be going to examine the similarities between the novels ‘a Christmas carol’ written by Charles Dickens and also the short story. ‘The Christmas party’ written by George Layton ‘A Christmas carol’ was written in 1849 for the rich and the upper class Victorian people. Dickens had visited a ragged school in field lane. He was horrified by what he had sewed. He had wanted to persuade people to do something about this awful poverty that some people had suffered. He was going to Wright a pamphlet called’ appeal to the people of England on behalf of the poor man’s chilled’ but Dickens felt that people were more likely to take notice of a good story. ‘A Christmas carol’ so he had wrote a novel instead. Although this book is fiction, the background is typical of what had happened at the time that it was written. The book was intended for an audience it nowadays is read for entertainment as many of the issues that Dickens had be fighting for have been resolved. George Layton wrote the Christmas party in 1950 and it was published in 1975. The book was written purely to entertain. The Christmas party was written for a wide variety of readers. Layton wrote the book purely to entertain people. He had intended for children and adults to read it. Younger children so they would understand it and older people that so when they read it also would bring back their child hood. There are many language features in ‘A Christmas Carol’. For example Dickens used many similes,’ I am as light as a feather’. The effect of comparing these two things is to bring life how scrooge feels, in comparison to how he used to feel about Christmas since his generosity. A way in which Layton makes it clear that the party is from a child’s point of view is that Christmas child like that is used language: for example ‘smashing’ ‘blooming fibber’ this are words and phrases that are slang. In contrast, Dickens’s novel is written in Standard English. ‘The Christmas Party’ is written in Yorkshire regional dialect such as â€Å"Did she hackers like she wouldn’t give owt away† This language is reflecting the language of northern England where the story is set. In contrasted ‘A Christmas Carol’ is set in London used a more formal language. There are many social differences between the two stories due to the time difference between their times of being written. However, many of the elements of Christmas are the same. One big similarity is that both stories are about Christmas and that it is being celebrated. In the Christmas Party† the boys go out carol singing. â€Å"Where the posh live† The boys go to the posh peoples homes because they think they are rich and will be more likely to give them more money. In a Christmas carol there are carol singers that had went to his house but scrooge sends them a way. Another language feature dickens uses is repetition. An example of this is â€Å"Wonderful games, wonderful unanimity, wonderful happiness† Dickens use the word wonderful to emphasise the contrast In scrooges character. The change in language reflects the change scrooge’s character. It shows how grate and wonderful everything is simply by repeating the words wonderful. Another example of repetition used for emphasis is â€Å"A squeezing†¦old sinner† This emphases the meatiness of scrooge’s character. The Christmas party has no such language features because it is a children’s story written from a chilled point o view as if written by a child. The Christmas carol is written in third person narrative. Whereas the Christmas party is written in first person narrative. A young boy tells the story so the language is very child like. In comparing the cultural similarities of the story of the Christmas party and the Christmas carols. I can see that the Christmas party is trying to say they go to the rich people’s houses sing to them and try to get money off them. Then the Christmas carol is for the rich people to read and to make them feel sorry for the poor people of that time so they would give them money. Due to their a time lapse between the two stories there is quite a big difference between them however, in both texts are traditional symbols of Christmas carols. There are talking about holly and miss toe for example ‘’The crisp leaves of holly scattered there’’ This is used many traditional symbols of Christmas are used to create a jolly scene. It also there is menshiond a turkey for example ‘’Not the prize little turkey the big one?’’ Research Papers on Comparing ‘A Christmas Carol’ with ‘The Christmas Party’ - English EssayLifes What IfsThe Masque of the Red Death Room meaningsQuebec and CanadaEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows EssayMind Travel19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraStandardized TestingComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoHip-Hop is Art

The segmented labour market theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The segmented labour market theory - Essay Example It is evident from the study that there is a primary sector which produces jobs that have a secure tenure, good benefits, with better working conditions, while a secondary sector is full of instability, limited benefits, and hazardous working conditions with low pay. Thus, workers in industrialised nations do not want the secondary sector jobs, resulting in employers looking for recruits among immigrants to fill the rejected positions. This secondary sector has little mobility options that impact negatively on educational returns, skills, base and working experience as compared with nations. This has been evidenced by educated Mexicans with skills who have migrated internally rather than into the United States as immigrant labour thus this only changes during periods of financial crisis. The above theory can be related that throughout American history, the ambitious and unsatisfied always had an economic theme giving them reason to immigrate to another place. The first three countrie s of European settlement was evidenced by an outward mobility, i.e. getting immigrants to the continent, thereafter the frontier to develop it. After the disappearance of the frontier in the 19thC, foreign conquest continued for example acquisitions of places like Cuba, and the Philippines etc. Late 19thC i.e. from the late 1590s into 1960s due to industrialisation, internal mobility was witnessed i.e. from the rural areas to the cities beginning in the industrial worth then the South with health accumulation and plenty of white collar jobs, movements were from the cities into the suburbs. An aging population moved from the colder regions into the warmer climes. Creating attendant jobs in the construction, restaurants, retail and healthcare industries After the cold war, mobility has tended to stagnant as there has been a wide stagnation in the economic growth of the country. The previous decade witnessed the devaluation of most mortgages resulting in majority owning houses that are not worth the mortgage paid for initially. This segmented the country into the so-called I presenters against the 99ers. But in reality the segmentation has been into two classes: the immobile and mobile. This classification is due to the industrial vibrantly; in the 1870s young people want to Chicage, 1910s people want to Detroit while 1970s movement was to Housen. This were characterised by; cowboys, the auto industry and the oil industry. The cities had industries that could after both skilled and unskilled people ample work. Nowadays due to the decline in industrial activities, mobility tends to be zero. The tech industry still offers jobs to the highly skilled although recruitment in those high tech industries like Silicon Valley computers, Raleigh-Dusham-bio- tech research is global recruitment for people with specific skills (www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/.../adam-davidson-mobile-class.html) These high tech industries afford the mobile class good salaries and high bargaining po wer. The immobile class is constituted by citizens with less specialization; therefore the only jobs are the low paying ones in the declining auto-industry and green energy clusters. The difference in the immobile class now that most are educated to a degree level i.e. B.A. degree meaning a degree especially one not from the top universities does not guarantee a job, but rather with specific skills one has. This has coalesced graduates of mid level colleges into a pool defined into a secondary segment. It leaves problems

The Book of Nehemiah Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Book of Nehemiah - Research Paper Example The setting for the book of Nehemiah is originally the court of the king in Persia. The people of Israel are still captive in Babylon. Some individuals have returned to Jerusalem with the King’s blessing to rebuild the temple. But nothing has been done to the city walls, gates and other defensive structures. Nehemiah is granted permission to travel to Jerusalem to rebuild the defenses of Jerusalem while the work on the temple continues. In Jerusalem, there is an assortment of Jews that remained behind from the initial captivity, enemies such as Amorites and Arabs, and other Jews working on the temple. Many of the Jews in Persia still had dreams of returning home while others were becoming acculturated. All of this was happening at some time between 450 BC and 400 BC. The Book of Nehemiah follows a narrative for much of the length. It was written as a history of the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem and as a witness of God’s reward for diligent effort. The book begins with Nehemiah receiving word that the construction of the temple was going as planned but was dangerous because there were no walls to protect the workers and the inhabitants of the city. This troubles Nehemiah to such a degree that King Artexerxes can tell that something is troubling Nehemiah, his steward. Nehemiah courageously tell the king what is on his mind. The king grants Nehemiah permission to rebuild the walls and provides tools, equipment and food. Nehemiah arrives and finds much of the city in ruins. Great breaches have been knocked in the walls, many gates and towers are burned and streets are impassable. Nehemiah announces his plans and immediately become an object of scorn and contempt. Sanballat the Horonite, Tobiah the Ammonite and Gehsem the Arab were his main detractors. They said the work could never be completed. Work does begin on the walls and progresses at a very rapid pace. The enemies of Israel are amazed. They begin to issue threats against the effort to r ebuild the walls. Nehemiah records that the work continued, that half of the people stood guard while the other half worked on the construction. These threats were just one of the challenges Nehemiah needed to overcome during the reconstruction of the walls of Jerusalem. Soon, a division among the local Jews arises. Many families are concerned that they need to support the workers on the walls and that the construction is taking away sons and daughters that are needed in the fields to grow crops. They threaten to stop giving to support the work of the walls and to withhold their labor. Nehemiah convinces them that this is not the right course of action. He encourages them to first of all, forgive the debts that exist within the community. That way no one needs to fear for losing his or her land. Once the locals agree to do this, they also see the wisdom in completing the walls. They continue to sacrifice to keep constructing the walls. With the construction of the walls complete, Ne hemiah makes lists of the families living in the town surrounding Jerusalem. He takes a census according to town and family, making special note of any Levites that can officiate in the temple. In the middle of the book, Ezra takes over, the narrative stops and there is a long account of how the people of Israel are taught from the books of Moses and reestablish temple worship once again in Jerusalem.

Home Health Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Home Health - Assignment Example The services most popular amid the home care agencies broadly include physical therapy, speech therapy and other consumer oriented medical facilities. The trained nurses can even provide advanced healthcare at home if supported with the diversified apparatus needed for such treatments (CARIE, 2008). Voluntary organizations that help in developing the healthcare needs can be identified as the American Association of Ambulatory Health Care (AAHC), Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS), Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organization (JCAHO), National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA) among others, who have been providing the home healthcare services within the society (Lundy & Janes, 2009). The initial health care plan for home care is identified as a defined period of certification. This certification needs to be renewed after the completion of its period for developing the effectiveness of the entire medical system. Hence, it gets an opportunity to be redeveloped based on the changing needs of the medical services. This could be duly identified as possessing a huge amount of development within the field of medical information (Pamela, Fenstemacher & Winn, 2010). The importance for documentation is thus noted to be one of the most important parts of the medical needs, as it would help in developing the instances of reimbursement and enhance the effectiveness of the system. Thus, the needs for documentation are important, as it helps in developing the overall attributes associated with such reimbursement and enhances transparency of the process. This further helps in developing proper documentation to be used for assistance in future (Pamela et al., 2010). Oasis C is a modified version of the Outcome and Assessment Information Set (OASIS), which is one of the compulsory documentations required for the home healthcare agencies. The purpose of OASIS-C is to provide a proper manual for the

The Psychology Of Team Sports

The Psychology Of Team Sports Hardy and Grace, (1997) outlined the importance of team building research in sport when they suggested whether a team is successful or not is frequently attributed to the effectiveness of their teamwork. To develop the effective team many team building programs attempt to increase cohesion amongst a group as team cohesion can affect performance (Eys et al, 2005). Different areas of group dynamics can be used to increase team cohesion, this section of the report will focus on the research conducted on leadership, role ambiguity and goal setting. Leadership is an important component for developing cohesion in sports teams (Carron et al, 2005). It has been suggested that effective leadership is a vital contributor to member satisfaction (Reimer Chellandurai, 1995). Leadership behaviours and styles adopted can have a big impact on team cohesion and subsequent performance. (Carron et al. 2005) An early study, investigating the relationship between (the coaches) leadership behaviours and team cohesion within sports teams, found adopting a democratic style produced higher levels of task cohesion (Lee et al. 1993). In addition, a variety of studies reported that an increase in social support behaviour increased task cohesion (Lee et al. 1993, Westre Weiss, 1991; Riemar Chellandurai, 1995). One study, Riemar Chellandurai, (1995) went further and examined the leadership behaviours preferred and perceived by players depending on their position. They found defensive athletes perceived and preferred higher levels of social support and democratic and autocratic styles then the offensive athletes. They also found member satisfaction was greatly influenced by social support. More recent research has tended to focus on the role of the athlete as a leader within the team, for example, the captain. Research has suggested athlete leaders are in fact better than coaches at administering leadership behaviours, such as; a democratic decision making style and social support (Loughead and Hardy, 2005). Whats more, further research has been conducted to assess different types of athlete leadership. For example, Loughead et al, (2006) discovered two types of leader within a sports team; a team captain and a peer leader (supplies leadership to at least 2 team members). In addition, Eys et al, (2007) investigated how 218 athletes perceived the athlete leader distributions within their sports teams. Their results suggest that members of a team are more satisfied when 3 leadership roles (social, task, external) are performed to the same extent regardless of how many are leaders present within the team. Carron et al, (2005) identified individual clarification of role responsibilities to be one of the most important factors in sport. The vast majority of research on role states in team sports has been on role ambiguity (role clarity) and its relation to performance using the conceptual model proposed by Beauchamp et al, (2002). The effect role ambiguity had on both task cohesion and task self efficacy was investigated by Eys Carron (2001). They concluded that members within basketball teams who were unsure of their role responsibilities, reported lower levels of attraction towards the team and felt their team was less unified in their task approach. Another study, Eys et al, (2003) demonstrated that team members perceptions of role ambiguity decreased throughout a competitive season. Additionally, although perceptions of role ambiguity are individual, members of a team could share the same beliefs. Finally, new editions to the team are more likely to perceive role ambiguity compared to experienced members of the team at the start of the season. Nevertheless, as the authors suggested, the results of this study will be difficult to apply to other team sport settings (e.g age group, competitive standards) as it was undertaken on a homogeneous population (Eys et al, 2003). It has also been reported that greater role ambiguity and role clarity could affect an athletes self efficacy, satisfaction and performance. These factors could not only affect the individual but the team as a whole (Forsyth, 1999). Beauchamp Bray (2001) investigated university athletes perceptions of role ambiguity and role conflict among their respective sports teams. Results demonstrated that members who perceived greater levels of role ambiguity and conflict had lower levels of efficacy and were less inclined to perform their role responsibilities. This is concurrent with Bandura, (1997) who suggested a decrease in persistence and effort will occur if the athlete is unclear of their role. The associated performance is also likely to suffer (Bandura, 1997) as indicated by Beauchamp et al, (2002) who found a negative relationship between role efficacy and role performance. Additionally, the relationship between leadership and role ambiguity could prove further understanding of thi s subject (Eys et al, 2003). The more detailed, specific and challenging yet realistic a goal is the more effective it will be (Gould, 1993). However, research found team members often set themselves unclear and generally descriptive goals (Brawley et al, 1992). In addition, when Dawson et al, (2002) interviewed varsity athletes to determine their goal setting habits, they found team members set personal goals and their respective teams had group goals. Research has indicated that team as opposed to individual goals are better for improving team sport performance (Johnson et al, 1997). The authors demonstrated how subjects who set team goals improved their bowling performance in cricket, yet subjects who set personal goals did not. The addition of team goals to a group has proven successful in the past. Lee (1988) found that adding team goals to female hockey teams had a positive effect on team performance. This was concurrent with Senecal et als, (2008) study of female basketball players. Over a season long intervention, they found team cohesion significantly increased in the intervention group compared to the control groups when they utilised team goal setting. Furthermore, Mellalieu et al. (2006) found a goal setting program with professional rugby players to have a positive impact on performance. It has been suggested that goal setting can enhance team cohesion by providing a team focus (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997). Focusing on one goal can improve group communication, commitment and satisfaction, improving group cohesion and subsequent performance (Carron Spink, 1993) Nevertheless, there have not been many studies carried out in sport that have investigated the effect of team goals on team performance (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997), with the majority of studies conducted outside of the sport setting (Weingart, 1992). Team building intervention A team goal setting program was chosen as the intervention topic to improve team cohesion (see appendix a). Early research from Widemeyer et al, (1992), as cited in Widemeyer Ducharme (1997) found athletes felt having a team goal was the most significant contributor to task cohesion from a choice of 35 variables. More recently, Stevens Bloom (2003) found team goals to be the most effective topic to utilise in a team building intervention. The following team building intervention applied principles from Eys et al, (2006) in Senecal et al. (2008), Widemeyer Ducharme, (1997) and Widemyer McGuire, (1996) in Carron et al, (2005). Step 1: Developing Long term goals Firstly, the athletes and coaches will work together to decide the long term goal of the team (Kyllo Landers, 1995) for example, achieve a top 3 position in the league. This will take place during an all day workshop during the first week of pre season. The athletes will work in small sub groups of 3-4 and discuss long team goals for the team (Eys et al, 2005). Once the sub groups have decided a long term goal, the coach will write the goals on the white board and the team will discuss together (Dale Wrisberg, 1996), narrowing down to one specific and measurable goal (Gould, 1993). The Long term goal will then be posted in the changing rooms for the remainder of the season, to help motivate the athletes (Weldon Weingart, 1988). Step 2: developing short term outcome goals To achieve the long term goal, specific and measurable (Carron et al, 2005) short term goals will be set as stepping stones (Kingston Hardy, 1997), for example, win the next 3 out of 5 games. To decide the goals, the coach will remind the players of last seasons statistics (eg. Wins, losses, league position) (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997). After the long term goals are decided, the players will use these statistics and repeat the same procedure as in step 1 by getting into subgroups (Eys et al, 2005). Once discussed, 5-6 specific and achievable short term outcome goals will be decided (Widemeyer Mcguire, 1996) Step 3: Developing short term performance goals In addition, the players will set performance goals during a second all day workshop, 2 weeks into the pre season. The use of multiple goal setting strategies has been shown to be more beneficial to performance (Filby et al, 1999). For this intervention, the players will only be working towards team goals as previous research has suggested team goals are better for improving team performance (Johnson et al, 1997) and that individually hidden goals have no significant impact on performance (Kyllo Landers, 1995). The performance goals will be decided through the use of performance profiling (Dale Wrisberg, 1996). This will be a group profile for the team as a whole. Firstly, the players will discuss what characteristics they believe a successful football team has. The players will express their opinions to the coach while they write them down onto a white board. The characteristics will need to be specific, so if there too general they will be re-evaluated until clearer. When the athletes and coach are happy that at least ten appropriate characteristics are on the white board, the players will individually and anonymously write all the characteristics off the white board on to paper. Examples of characteristics could be; putting 100% effort into every training session and game, winning over 80% of their aerial battles. The players will then proceed to evaluate their teams characteristics between a scale of 1-10, with 1 being weak and 10 being strong. Once completed, each characteristic will be calculated as a mean. The lowest mean scores will be the areas developed into performance goals that the team will aim to achieve. Additionally, the coach will use the same procedure to demonstrate their perceptions of the team. At the next group meeting the team will discuss the results (lowest scores) and agree on 5-6 performance goals to improve their perceived weaknesses (Dale Wrisberg, 1996). When the specific performances goals are established, the team needs to decide realistic yet challenging target levels for these goals (eg. more than 5 shots on target per game) (Carron et al, 2005). To make sure their realistic and challenging the coach will again provide the athletes with statistics from last season (eg. shots on goal, tackles won). The sub group procedure used in step 1 and 2 will be utilized to achieve this (Eys et al, 2005). After negotiations the team will conclude the appropriate targets for their team. This process will be repeated during the middle and the end point of the competitive calendar (Dale Wrisberg, 1996) so that the performance goals can be updated throughout the season Step 4: Monitoring and evaluation of short and long term goals The Long and short term goals will be continually monitored throughout the intervention. Prior to every match and practice session (1 of each per week) throughout the pre and competitive season the team will be reminded of the goals they set for themselves in attempt to provide a focus for the team and help motivate the players (Weldon Weingart, 1988). To do this team goals will be written on the white board in the changing rooms, the coach will then highlight the importance of these goals during their team talk. In addition, after each match team statistics (eg. goals scored and corners won in that game) and the statistics for the agreed performance indices will be posted in the changing rooms. The team members can then look at the statistics and measure their progress towards their target levels. Step 5: Updating team goals After every 3-5 games, the coach and players will work with the intervention specialist on evaluating and possibly updating the team goals if needed, eg. Removing or adding performance goals and changing the target level (Senecal et al, 2008). This will be achieved using their performance statistics from the previous 3-5 games and the characteristics of their next 3-5 opponents (Widemeyer McGuire, 1996). Again, the procedure demonstrated in step 1 will be used to administer the changes. Stage 6: Praise continued progress toward team goals During the intervention the coach will continually openly praise his team when they do well and progress toward their team goals, feedback on goal progress may enhance the use of team goals (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997). Step 7: post intervention check. 1 week after the intervention was completed; A 5 question, post intervention questionnaire (Stevens Bloom, 2002) was completed by every player to assess the effectiveness of the intervention (Senecal et al, 2008). In addition, 1 and 3 months after the intervention is completed interviews will be conducted with each player (Stevens Bloom, 2003). Players will be instructed to relax and openly discuss their opinions of the TBIs effectiveness. Critical analysis of team building interventions in sport Team building interventions are designed to improve group performance by increasing group cohesiveness (Carron et al, 1997). However previous studies have produced mixed results on the effectiveness of team building interventions (TBI) on improving cohesion. Some were effective (Voight Callaghan, 2001; Senecal et al, 2008; McClure Foster 1991; Mellalieu et al, 2006) and some were unsuccessful (Prapavessis et al, 1996; Cogan Petrie, 1996; Stevens Bloom, 2002). One study, Steven Bloom (2003) found their TBI to be effective during the pre season but not throughout the competitive season. Nevertheless, Brawley Paskevich (1997) have highlighted many methodological concerns with the research conducted using team building interventions. For example, the pre-test, post-test experimental design employed by various TBI (Voight Callaghan 2001: Senecal et al, 2008; Prapevessis et al, 1996; Stevens Bloom, 2002; Mellalieu et al, 2006) makes it difficult to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. Although three of these studies were effective (Voight Callaghan 2001: Senecal et al, 2008; Mellalieu et al, 2006), due to the absence of measures throughout the competitive season, although likely it makes it difficult to determine whether or not it was the TBI that improved performance or outside interference, questioning the validity of their results. For example, Brawley Paskevich, (1997) suggested leadership change; a less competitive calendar or the loss of an unsettling member could have all influenced team cohesion independent of the TBI. Some studies that employed a quasi experimental design (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Stevens Bloom, 2003) reported their TBI to be ineffective at improving team cohesion. The design could be the reason for their lack of significant results. A quasi experimental design rarely includes random assignment making it difficult to determine whether factors such as differences in coaching style and team atmosphere affected the results (Stevens Bloom, 2003). Randomly assigning members to different teams, allows experimenters to observe which treatment of the TBI infers change (Brawley Paskevich, 1997). One study employed an experimental design (Mclure Foster, 1991). The results of their study suggested their intervention was effective at increasing cohesion among gymnasts. The positive results of their study could be attributed to the experimental design as this method includes random assignment. Therefore they were able to notice a difference in cohesion amongst randomly assigned athletes with out interference from some of the problems mentioned above. Furthermore, some studies did not utilise a control group, one was effective at improving cohesion (Voight Callaghan 2001) another was ineffective (Bloom Stevens 2002). The absence of a control group however, questions the validity of Voight Callaghans (2001) results. As suggested by Brawley Paskevich, (1997) it is difficult to establish whether their TBI was actually the cause for the improvement in performance as there were no control or placebo groups to compare the results to. In addition, as Stevens Bloom (2002) did not include a control group, whether or not cohesion levels would have decreased over the season and therefore whether or not the intervention was helpful to the team is unclear. Additionally, the duration of the TBI is another methodological concern identified by Brawley Paskevich (1997). It has been suggested interventions are fairly slow processes (French Bell, 1984) and at least 1 season of a TBI is needed to produce results of any significance (Brawley Paskevich, 1997). Therefore the results of studies that lasted less than a season (Prapavessis et al, 1996; Mellalieu et al, 2006) may not portray the long-term effects of the intervention. Studies that have lasted at least a season (Senecal et al, 2008; Mclure Foster 1991; Stevens Bloom, 2002; Voight Callaghan, 2001; Stevens Bloom, 2003; Cogan Petrie, 1996) are more likely to provide clearer results. In addition, although the vast majority some of these studies administered post intervention checks (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Senecal et al, 2008; Mellalieu et al, 2006; Stevens Bloom; Voight Callaghan, 2001; Prapevessis et al, 1996; Stevens Bloom, 2002) none of these studies administered any questionn aires 3 or 6 months after the intervention to examine the long term effects of their intervention. Sampling size can be another methodological concern for researches conducting TBIs. Two studies had a very small sample size (Mellalieu et al, 2006: 5 participants; McClure Foster, 1991:15 participants. Some studies have only used a slightly larger sized sample consisting of no more than 45 participants (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Voight Callaghan, 2001; Stevens Bloom, 2003; Stevens Bloom, 2002). Only 2 studies have used relatively large sample sizes: Senecal et al, (2008); (n=86) Prappevessis et al, (1996); (n=137). Nevertheless, all studies have reported sufficient details such as gender, age, sport and team ability (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Voight Callaghan, 2001; Stevens Bloom, 2003; Stevens Bloom, 2002; McClure Foster, 1991; Mellalieu et al, 2006; Senecal et al, 2008; Prapavessis et al, 1996) However, some of the characteristics reported in the studies can be vague. Many studies have failed to state appropriate details, such as race (Voight Callaghan, 2001; Prapevessis et al, 199 6; Senecal et al, 2008; McClure Foster, 1991; Stevens Bloom, 2002; Mellalieu et al, 2006). Furthermore, the majority of studies also seem to be generalized to similar populations. For example, the majority of studies were conducted on females (Voight Callaghan, 2001; Senecal et al, 2008; McClure Foster, 1991; Cogan Petrie, 1996; Steven Bloom, 2003; Stevens Bloom, 2002), on ages ranging between 18-24 (Voight Callaghan, 2001; McClure Foster, 1991; Cogan Petrie, 1996; Steven Bloom, 2003; Mellalieu et al, 2006) and on high school or university teams (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Steven Bloom, 2003; McClure Foster, 1991; Senecal et al, 2008). In addition, the studies that indicated the race of the subjects were predominately on Caucasians (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Steven Bloom, 2003). As these studies are on similar populations the generalizability of these interventions is limited. Therefore, the results are difficult to apply to a wide range of sports teams, as member characteristics s uch as age, gender, race and ability can vary greatly per team. Previous studies on sport teams have had the coach/manager as the main facilitator of the intervention, working with the intervention specialist. As a result, Some TBIs have taken a more indirect approach (Prappevessis et al, 1996) or used a combination of indirect and direct models (Steven Bloom, 2003; Cogan Petrie, 1996; Mellalieu et al, 2006). However, Brawley Paskevich (1997) identified indirect models to have weaknesses. The authors explain that coaches/managers may not be capable of undertaking a TBI as they do not have the knowledge, time and commitment to make it successful. On the other hand, direct models have the advantage of often allowing the intervention specialist to work directly with the participants. In addition, the team members become more involved in the decision making process during the intervention. Bloom, (1996), suggested the involvement of the athletes is a key factor in improving team performance. From the four studies reviewed that utilised a direct te am building model, 3 were effective at improving cohesion (Senecal et al, 2008; Voight Callaghan 2001; McClure Foster, 1991) with only one unsuccessful (Stevens Bloom, 2003). References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Beauchamp, M. R., Bray, S. R. (2001). â€Å"Role ambiguity and role conflict within interdependent teams†. Small Group Research, 32, 133-157. Beauchamp, M. R., Bray, S. R., Eys, M. A.,Carron, A. V. (2002). â€Å"Role ambiguity, role efficacy, and role performance: Multidimensional and mediational relationships within interdependent sport teams†. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6, 229-242. Bloom, G. A. (1996). Life at the top: Philosophies of success. In J. H. Salmela (Ed.), Great job coach! Getting the edge from proven winners (pp. 37-65). Ottawa, ON: Potentium. Bloom, G.A. and Stevens, D.E. (2002). â€Å"Case study: A team-building mental skills training program with an intercollegiate Equestrian Team†. Athletic Insight 4, The Online Journal of Sport Psychology Brawley, L.R., Carron, A.V. Widmeyer, W.N. (1992). â€Å"The nature of group goals in sport teams: A phenomenological approach†. The Sport Psychologist, 6, pp323-333. Carron, A.V., Spink, K.S. (1993). Team building in an exercise setting. The Sport Psychologist, 7, 8-18. Carron, A.V., Spink, K.S., Prapavessis, H. (1997). â€Å"Team building and cohesiveness in the sport and exercise setting: Use of indirect interventions†. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, pp61-72. Carron, A.V. and Hausenblas, H. A., Eys, M.(2005). Group dynamics in sport. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Cogan, K.D. and Petrie, T.A. (1996). â€Å"Sport consultation: An evaluation of a season-long intervention with female collegiate gymnasts†. The Sport Psychologist, 9, pp282-296. Dale, G.A. Wrisberg,, C.A. (1996). â€Å"The use of a performance profiling technique in a team setting; Getting the athletes and coach on the same page†. The Sport Psychologist, 10, pp261-277. Dawson, K. A., Bray, S. R., Widemeyer, W. N. (2002) â€Å"Goal setting by female intercollegiate sport teams and athletes, Avante, 8, pp14-23 Eys, M. A., Carron, A. V. (2001). â€Å"Role ambiguity, task cohesion, and task self-efficacy. Small Group Research, 32, 356-373. Eys, M. A., Carron, A. V., Beauchamp, M. R., Bray, S. R. (2003). â€Å"Role ambiguity in sport teams†. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25(4), 534-550. Forsyth, D. R. (1999). Group dynamics (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Eys, M, A., Patterson, M. M., Loughead, T. M., Carron , A. V. (2005) â€Å"Team building in sport†. In Hackfort, D., Duda, J. L., Lidor, R., Handbook of Research in Applied Sport Psychology: International Perspectives (pp219-233). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology Eys, M. A., Loughead, T. M., Hardy, J. (2007) â€Å"Athlete leadership dispersion and satisfaction in interactive sport teams†, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, pp281-296 Filby, W. C., Maynard, I. W., Graydon, J. K. (1999) â€Å"The effect of multiple goal strategies on performance outcomes in training and competition. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, pp230-246 French, W.D. Bell. C.H. (1984). Organization development: Behavioural science interventions for organization improvement (3rd Ed). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Rentice-Hall. Gould, D. (1993). Goal setting for peak performance (2nd ed.).Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company Johnson, S. R. Ostrow, A. C., Perna, F. M., Etzel, E, F. (1997) â€Å"The effects of group versus individual goal setting on bowling performance. The Sport Psychologist, 11, pp190-200. Kingston Hardy (1997). â€Å"Effect of different types of goals on processes that support performance†. The Sport Psychologist, 11, pp277 293. Kyllo, L. B., Landers, D. M. (1995) â€Å"Goal setting in sport and exercise: A research synthesis to resolve the controversy†. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, pp117-137 Lee, C. (1988). â€Å"The relationship between goal setting, self-efficacy, and female field hockey team performance†. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 20, pp147- I61 Lee, H. K., Kim, B.H., Lim, B. H.(1993) â€Å"The influence of structural characteristics of team success in sports†, Korean Journal of Sport Science, 5, pp138-154 Loughead, T. M., Hardy, J. (2005). A comparison of coach and peer leader behaviours in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6, 303-312. Loughead, T. M., Hardy, J., Eys, M. A. (2006). The nature of athlete leadership. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 29, 142-158. McClure, B. Foster, C.D. (1991). â€Å"Groupwork as a method of promoting cohesiveness within a womens gymnastics team†. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73, pp307-313. Mellalieu, S.D., Hanton, S., OBrien, M. (2006). The effects of goal setting on rugby performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, pp259 261. Prapavessis, H., Carron, A.V. Spink, K.S. (1996). â€Å"Team building in sport†. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 27, pp269-285. Riemar, H.A. Chelladurai, P. (1995). Leadership and satisfaction in athletes†. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, pp276-293. Senecal, J., Loughead, T.M. Bloom, G.A. (2008). â€Å"A season-long team-building intervention: Examining the effect of team goal setting on cohesion†. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 30, pp186 199. Stevens, D.E., Bloom, G.A. (2003). â€Å"The effect of team building on cohesion†. Avante, 9, pp43-54. Voight, M. and Callaghan, J. (2001). â€Å"A team building intervention programme: Application and evaluation with two university soccer teams†. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 24 ,pp420 431. Weldon, E.. Weingart. L.R. (1988). â€Å"A theory of group goals and group performance†. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management. Anaheim, CA. Weingart. L.R. (1992). Impact of group goals, task component complexity, effort, and planning on group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77. 682-693. Westre, K. R. And Weiss, M. R., (1991) â€Å"The relationship between perceived coaching behaviours and group cohesion in high school football teams†, Sport psychologist, 5, pp41-54 Widmeyer. W.N., Silva. J.M. Hardy, C.J. (1992). â€Å"The nature of group cohesion in sport reams: A Phenomenological approach†. Paper presented at the annual meeting Of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology. Colorado Springs, CO. Widemeyer, W. N., McGuire, E, G. (1996) Sport psychology for ice hockey. Presentation to Ontario Intermediate Coaching Clinic, Waterloo; Ontario Widmeyer, W.N. DuCharme, K. (1997). â€Å"Team building through team goal setting†. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, pp97-113.

Biological And Physical Process Of Aging Essay -- essays research pape

The aging process is difficult to analyze because of the way that the body’s organ systems work together. The breakdown of one structure will ultimately affect the function of others. The medical field of gerontology deals with examining the biological changes of aging, both passive and active, that occur at the molecular and cellular levels. This paper will seek to explore those changes, and the affect that they have on the process of aging. Aging as a passive process involves the breakdown of structures and the resulting slowing of functions. At the molecular level, passive aging is seen as the degeneration of the elastin and collagen proteins of connective tissues. These proteins are primarily responsible for the smoothness and firmness of young skin. Consequently, when these proteins breakdown, the skin will sag, and the muscle will lose its firmness. Another sign of passive aging is the breakdown of lipids at the biochemical level. As aging membranes leak during this lipid degeneration, a fatty, brown pigment known as lipofuscin accumulates. As this happens, the mitochondria, or the â€Å"powerhouse of the cell† begins to break down, thereby decreasing the amount of energy that is being supplied to the cell. This cellular degeneration may be set into action by highly reactive chemicals known as free radicals. These molecules have an unpaired electron in the outermost valence shell. This causes the molecule to grab electrons from other molecules, setting into motion a chai...

Education: College and Recharge Academic Battery Essay

Taking a year off after finishing form six before approaching further tertiary education has been a much debated issue over the past few years. While some see it as an opportunity for the school leavers to know more about the world, there is another party that says it will be time wasted if the school leavers end up without planning anything during the time. After all, the school leavers still have to put their consideration on this issue. Point 1 Recharge academic battery – After spending a quarter of life as a student, it is a chance for the school leavers to take a break off. -Taking a year off before returning to school will provide you the chance to approach the next phase of your education with a fresh start and renewed vigor while staving off academic burnout. -During that time, they can also have some preparation on the further tertiary education by conducting an exhaustive college or university search. Point 2 Decision time – Take a year off will allow school leavers to decide on their major. -They can obtain an internship in the area that they are interested in studying, or in the career field they would like to pursue. -This will help them brings practical, real-world experience into their tertiary education, and it can get them some career contacts to contact after you graduate. Point 3 A chance to mature before entering tertiary education -Perfection is acquired through error and trial. -After the school leavers walked out from the school, they will undergo much hardship in the reality just to know themselves in the shape of perfection. -At the same time, they can learn to be mature by sorting things out around them. -By taking this opportunity, the environment in the society can help in building up their self confidence. Point 4 Earn some money -School leavers can earn extra money to help defray their upcoming college or university costs and expenditure in college or university. -Work experience can provide them with ‘soft skills,’ such as interpersonal, communication and leadership skills which is typically lacking in our previous education. – This is able to add a valuable notch to the resume which will help them when they enter the work force after earning their degree. Taking a year off from school can be a disaster without a proper plan. Therefore, the school leavers have to think long and hard about how they are going to spend their time. They have to ensure that their decision will bring a unique contribution to their future lives.

If the French Supposer Hypothesizes, Add Subjunctive

If the French Supposer Hypothesizes, Add Subjunctive When  supposer  (to  suppose or to assume) is used with a dependent clause beginning with  que, the dependent clause may use a subjunctive verb, depending on how supposer is used. When it expresses an assumption, no:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Je suppose quil le fait.  Ã‚  Ã‚  I assume that he is doing it. When the subject is presenting a hypothesis, yes:      Supposons quil le fasse.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lets suppose that he does it. Supposer que joins a long list of similar verbs and expressions of doubt, possibility, supposition, and opinion; they all also need the subjunctive in the  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹que  subordinate clause. Supposer and Supposer Que Supposer que,  when used to express an hypothesis,  fulfills the subjunctives underlying requirement  of  expressing actions or ideas that are subjective or otherwise uncertain. As with  this use of supposer  que,  the French subjunctive  is nearly always found in dependent clauses introduced by  que  or  qui, and the subjects of the dependent and main clauses are usually different, as in:      Je veux que tu le fasses.  Ã‚  Ã‚  I want you to do it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Il faut que nous partions.  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is necessary that we leave. French Verbs and Expressions Similar to Supposer Que Here are other verbs and expressions that, like  supposer que,  can communicate  doubt, possibility, supposition, and opinion. They all require the subjunctive in the dependent clause that  begins with  que.  There are many other types of constructions that need the French subjunctive as well, which are explained and listed in the full-on  subjunctivator  (our term). accepter que   to acceptsattendre ce que  Ã‚  to expect thatchercher ... qui*  Ã‚  to look fordà ©tester que  Ã‚  to hate thatdouter que**  Ã‚  to doubt thatil est convenable que  Ã‚  it is proper/fitting/appropriate thatil est douteux que**  Ã‚  it is doubtful thatil est faux que  Ã‚  it is false thatil est impossible que  Ã‚  it is impossible thatil est improbable que  Ã‚  it is improbable thatil est juste que  Ã‚  it is right/fair thatil est possible que  Ã‚  it is possible thatil est peu probable que  Ã‚  it is not very likely  thatil nest pas certain que  Ã‚  it is not certain thatil nest pas clair que  Ã‚  it is not clear thatil nest pas à ©vident que  Ã‚  it is not obvious thatil nest pas exact que  Ã‚  it is not correct thatil nest pas probable que  Ã‚  it is unlikely thatil nest pas sà »r que  Ã‚  it is not certain thatil nest pas vrai que  Ã‚  it is not true thatil semble que  Ã‚  it seems thatil se peut que  Ã‚  it may be t hatle fait que  Ã‚  the fact thatnier que***  Ã‚  to deny thatrefuser que  Ã‚  to refusesupposer que  Ã‚  to suppose / assume; to hypothesize *When you are looking for someone who may not exist, this indicates doubt and therefore requires the subjunctive in the dependent clause:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Je cherche un homme qui sache la và ©rità ©.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Im looking for a man who knows the truth. **These do not take the subjunctive when they are used negatively:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Je doute quil vienne. I  doubt hes coming.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Je ne doute pas quil vient.   I dont doubt hes coming. ***When  nier  is in the negative, its followed by the the more formal ne explà ©tif, which uses only ne  (without pas).      Il na pas nià © quelle ne soit partie.  Ã‚  Ã‚  He didnt deny that she left. Additional Resources The SubjunctivatorQuiz: Subjunctive or indicative?

Definition and Examples of Business Jargon in English

Definition and Examples of Business Jargon in English Business jargon is the specialized language used by members of corporations and bureaucracies. Also known as corporate jargon, business-speak, and bureaucratese. Business jargon typically includes buzzwords, vogue words, and euphemisms. Contrast with plain English. Examples and Observations Hes successful in interfacing with clients we already have, but as for new clients, its low-hanging fruit. He takes a high-altitude view, but he doesnt drill down to that level of granularity where we might actionize new opportunities.Clark winced. I remember that one. I think I may have had a minor stroke in the office when he said that.(Emily St. John Mandel, Station Eleven. Alfred A. Knopf, 2014) The Poisonous Spell of Business Jargon The next time you feel the need to reach out, touch base, shift a paradigm, leverage a best practice or join a tiger team, by all means do it. Just don’t say you’re doing it.If you have to ask why, chances are you’ve fallen under the poisonous spell of business jargon. No longer solely the province of consultants, investors and business-school types, this annoying gobbledygook has mesmerized the rank and file around the globe.Jargon masks real meaning, says Jennifer Chatman, management professor at the University of California-Berkeley’s Haas School of Business. People use it as a substitute for thinking hard and clearly about their goals and the direction that they want to give others.(Max Mallet, Brett Nelson and Chris Steiner, The Most Annoying, Pretentious And Useless Business Jargon. Forbes, January 26, 2012) Laser-Focused At companies ranging from children’s book publishers to organic-food purveyors, CEOs are increasingly training powerful beams of light on their targets. The phrase laser-focused appeared in more than 250 transcripts of earnings calls and investor events this year, according to data compiled by Bloomberg, on pace to eclipse the 287 in all of 2012. It’s business jargon, says L.J. Rittenhouse, CEO of Rittenhouse Rankings, who consults with executives on communication and strategy. What would a more candid disclosure be? We are focused. What does a laser have to do with it? . . .David Larcker, a professor at the Stanford Graduate School of Business who has studied deception on investor conference calls, says that when executives start using a lot of jargon, it makes you wonder about the believability. Rittenhouse, who analyzes shareholder letters for an annual report on CEO candor and reviews about 100 conference-call transcripts each year, has found that companies that use fact-deficient, obfuscating generalities have worse share performance than more candid companies.(Noah Buhayar, The CEOs Favorite Clichà ©. Bloomberg Businessweek, September 23-29, 2013) Business-Speak In an infamous December 2012 press release, Citigroup announced that it would begin a series of repositioning actions that will further reduce expenses and improve efficiency, resulting in streamlined operations and an optimized consumer footprint across geographies. Translation: 11,000 people would be repositioned out the door.Business-speak, with its heartless euphemisms and empty stock phrases, is the jargon that everyone loves to hate. . . .For several years, Mark Liberman, a linguist at the University of Pennsylvania, has been keeping an eye on the words and phrases that are condemned as business-speak, and he has noticed that as much as mission statements and deliverables, what gets under people’s skin are expressions like impactful, at the end of the day, and low-hanging fruit. As he has investigated these expressions, he noted in a post last month on the blog Language Log, he has found that they are as common in sports, politics, social science, and other spheres as th ey are in business.(Joshua J. Friedman, Jargon: It’s Not the Business World’s Fault! The Boston Globe, September 15, 2013)Dharmeshs culture code incorporates elements of HubSpeak. For example, it instructs that when someone quits or gets fired, the event will be referred to as graduation. This really happens, over and over again. In my first month at HubSpot Ive witnessed several graduations, just in the marketing department. Well get an email from Cranium saying, Team, Just letting you know that Derek has graduated from HubSpot, and were excited to see how he uses his superpowers in his next big adventure!(Dan Lyons, Disrupted: My Misadventure in the Start-Up Bubble. Hachette, 2016) Business-Speak in Higher Education As universities are beaten into the shapes dictated by business, so language is suborned to its ends. We have all heard the robotic idiom of management, as if a button had activated a digitally generated voice. Like Newspeak in Nineteen Eighty-Four, business-speak is an instance of magical naming, superimposing the imagery of the market on the idea of a university–through ‘targets, ‘benchmarks, time-charts, league tables, ‘vision statements, ‘content providers. We may laugh or groan, depending on the state of our mental health at the thickets of TLAs–three-letter acronyms, in the coinage of the writer Richard Hamblyn–that accumulate like dental plaque. . . .The code conceals aggression: actions are undertaken in its name and justified by its rules; it pushes responsibility from persons to systems. It pushes individuals to one side and replaces them with columns, boxes, numbers, rubrics, often meaningless tautologies (a form will ask first for ‘aims, and then for ‘objectives’).(Marina Warner, Learning My Lesson. London Review of Books, March 19, 2015) The Epic Poetry of Modern Business Jargon is an invaluable tool in massaging meaning for marketing purposes. Investment is a particularly fertile field. Promoters may describe a start-up with no customers as pre-revenue, optimistically implying that sales are inevitable. Hoped-for turnover will be projected in a business plan, a document used for raising finance and scrupulously ignored thenceforth.Terminology that deflects criticism while bestowing spurious professionalism is essential to the manager. Hence the phrase Im outside the loop on that excuses knuckle-dragging cluelessness. Im afraid I dont have the bandwidth is a polite way of saying: You arent important enough for me to help you. And It is my understanding that . . . allows the speaker to assert vague suspicions as solid facts...Jargon is the epic poetry of modern business. It can turn a bunch of windbags in a meeting room into a quick wins taskforce. I once asked a handyman toiling in an office doorway whether he was installing a wheelchair ramp. No, he said solemnly, its a diversity access feature.(Jonathan Guthrie, Three Cheers for the Epic Poetry of Jargon. Financial Times, Dec. 13, 2007) Financial Jargon: Reversification The images and metaphors keep doing headstands. To bail out is to slop water over the side of a boat. That verb has been reversified so that it means an injection of public money into a failing institution; taking something dangerous out has turned into putting something vital in. Credit has been reversified: it means debt. Inflation means money being worth less. Synergy means sacking people. Risk means precise mathematical assessment of probability. Noncore assets means garbage. These are all examples of how the process of innovation, experimentation, and progress in the techniques of finance has been brought to bear on language, so that words no longer mean what they once did. It is not a process intended to deceive, but . . . it confines knowledge to a priesthood- the priesthood of people who can speak money. (John Lanchester, Money Talks. The New Yorker, August 4, 2014) Greenspans Fed-Jargon A special area of financial jargon is Greenspeak, the terms and phrases of Federal Reserve Board Chairman [1987-2006], Alan Greenspan. For decades a small group of economists known as Fed-watchers, pored over the statements made by the Federal Reserve, looking for indications of changes in Federal Reserve policy. Today, almost every investor and business person in the U.S. listens to the latest Fed pronouncements. From his 1999 description of the technology stock market as irrational exuberance, to his considerable period, soft patch, and short-lived descriptions of the economy and monetary policy in 2003-2004, the words of Alan Greenspan [became] common in American business jargon. (W. Davis Folsom, Understanding American Business Jargon: A Dictionary, 2nd ed. Greenwood, 2005)

Applying People CMM to Your Organization-Part 2 Essay

Applying People CMM to Your Organization-Part 2 - Essay Example Each defined goal has peculiar practices that explain the activities anticipated to result in attainment of the goal. Toyota, for example, its specific aims of the project planning course involve setting up estimates, obtaining commitment to the plan, and developing a project plan. The exact practices associated with â€Å"establishing approximate† goals involves estimating the extent of the project, coming up with estimates of project characteristics, outlining the project life cycle, and establishing estimates of cost and effort. The process areas portray behavior that are exhibited at Toyota, practices are interpreted using in-depth understanding of the model, the Toyota’s organization, its business environment, and any other specific conditions considered. Generic goals refer to all Toyota’s process areas. Accomplishment from each goal in a process area shows whether the institutionalization and implementation of each process area is impressive, lasting, and repeatable. Each generic goal is linked to generic practices. Toyota’s generic goal is to â€Å"run a quantitatively managed process†; this is achieved through two generic practices, â€Å"stabilizing sub-process performance† and â€Å"establishing quality objectives.† Toyota’s capable process is outlined, practiced, documented, supported, controlled, maintained, validated, measured, and can be improved. Furthermore, the model allows both explanation (interpretation) and partial changes (modifications) needed to satisfy Toyota’s size and business objectives. People CMM at Toyota have been made in two representations, staged and continuous. These representations avail alternative way of process improvement. These representations have essential content that are identical, but are organized differently. The Toyota’s continuous representation foundation is based on ability within specific process area—the limits of anticipated results that can be obtained by applying a process.

Gender differences in Business Leadership Style Thesis

Gender differences in Business Leadership Style - Thesis Example This makes them better communicators, more sensitive to other peoples feelings, while their verbal fluency makes them better able to communicate speak well and influence others. Differences in leadership styles: Leadership has traditionally been associated with management, but this may not necessarily represent an accurate view because managers think incrementally while leaders think radically. Moreover, leadership involves a transformation in individuals, according to Spencer, â€Å"â€Å"transformational leadership is a process that changes and transforms individuals†. (Spencer 1). According to Warren Benis, leaders are â€Å"able to express themselves fully. They also know what they want', why they want it, and how to communicate what they want to others, in order to gain their co-operation and support. Lastly, ‘they know how to achieve their goals†. (Bennis 1998: 3). As detailed further below, the brain structure in women which provides them more communicativ e ability may be more conducive to transformational leadership. Three different leadership and decision making styles have been identified, namely (a) authoritarian (b) democratic and (c) bureaucratic, based upon decision making patterns of the leader(Burns, 1977). When the leadership style is authoritarian or autocratic, then the leader seeks to retain as much of the decision making power as possible, exercises authority and control and retains the responsibility for decisions (Burns, 1997). The advantages of this leadership style are faster decision making and a work group that functions in a structured manner. The disadvantages however, are that team members may not respond well to being ordered around or may become too dependent on the... Leadership has traditionally been associated with management, but this may not necessarily represent an accurate view because managers think incrementally while leaders think radically. Moreover, leadership involves a transformation in individuals, according to Spencer, â€Å"â€Å"transformational leadership is a process that changes and transforms individuals†. (Spencer 1). According to Warren Benis, leaders are â€Å"able to express themselves fully. They also know what they want', why they want it, and how to communicate what they want to others, in order to gain their co-operation and support. Lastly, ‘they know how to achieve their goals†. (Bennis 1998: 3). As detailed further below, the brain structure in women which provides them more communicative ability may be more conducive to transformational leadership. Three different leadership and decision making styles have been identified, namely (a) authoritarian (b) democratic and (c) bureaucratic, based upon decision making patterns of the leader(Burns, 1977). When the leadership style is authoritarian or autocratic, then the leader seeks to retain as much of the decision making power as possible, exercises authority and control and retains the responsibility for decisions (Burns, 1997). The advantages of this leadership style are faster decision making and a work group that functions in a structured manner. The disadvantages however, are that team members may not respond well to being ordered around or may become too dependent on the leader and helpless to function in an emergency.

PSYCHOLOGY SET UP A STUDY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

PSYCHOLOGY SET UP A STUDY - Essay Example For our purposes, in this study we shall select two contrasting styles, the Authoritative and the Uninvolved for investigation. The paper cited above in summarising research on the topic claims that ‘Children and adolescents whose parents are authoritative rate themselves and are rated by objective measures as more socially and instrumentally competent †¦ ’and those whose parents are ‘uninvolved perform poorly in all domains.’ The description of ‘authoritative’ parental style borders on the ideal. These parents do not demand unquestioning obedience. They set standards for children’s conduct by negotiation and reference to shared and valued goals. They are assertive but do not punish breaches of discipline in an arbitrary manner by restrictions or by intruding on the child. They require and receive cooperation from their children. The ‘uninvolved’ parents may be labelled ‘laissez-faire’, almost to the point of being neglectful of their children. They are neither responsive to the children’s demands nor do they demand or expect standards of behaviour and conduct from their children. Although it is clear from the above discussion that we could easily identify two groups for this study, we are required to delve a little further into the theory underlying the differences in the two parental styles. One basis of criticisms for isolating parental styles is the ‘nature – nurture’ controversy. Are we right to ignore ‘nature’ or heritability (genes) when we use parental style as a variable? We are concentrating on ‘nurture’ exclusively in this study. Caveats must be spelt out in the Discussion section. Children may undergo quantitative as well as qualitative changes in their personality and competences as they mature. By selecting children of exactly the same age group for our study, we can reasonably hope to eliminate problems that could arise from the ‘continuity-discontinuity’ compounding variable. The

Why I Prefer to Marry Late Essay Example for Free

Why I Prefer to Marry Late Essay For me, marriage is a promise. A promise that we give, without wanting to receive the equivalent reward. Hence, we must have enough ability to maintain this relationship. The salient characteristic of many traditional marriage systems is that women, seem to have little independence, because of education and income. In South Asia, brides are even taken to groom`s family as soon they move into property. In this case, marrying late can provide us opportunities to fulfill and pursue our achievement in education, and therefore have a better social status and income to be financially independent. In addition to be financially independent, this also give us a chance to satisfy ourselves, in accomplishing our goals in lives. And psychologists say that the want for independent success is the main reason why people are marrying at a later time. Besides, marrying late also provides an opportunity to get to know your future companion better. We may often see in the news that many young people get married on impulse, which is, they don’t really get to know each other more. As George Bernard Shaw said, â€Å"Beauty is all very well at first sight; but who ever looks at it when it has been in the house three days?† When two people first met, and they had a crush on each other. In order to show the best of themselves, they tend to hide their drawbacks . However, this lead to a serious problem that they didn’t get to â€Å"know† more about the mate. And as time went by, the drawbacks emerge and they have contradiction in their personality. That`s when young couple decide to get divorced. Nevertheless, marriage is a promise for me, so I`d rather take time to choose the one I love and appreciate his virtue as well as imperfection, rather than presume the one we first met an object to marriage. Because It`s not a game that could be quit when we later on feel tired or bored ,especially when there are children of us. After all, the main function of marriage in most traditional societies is to bring up children. Moreover, because marriage is a promise for me. So I`d choose to marry late so that I could enjoy a free time doing whatever I want, going wherever I like, dating whomever I appreciate without having to care about my husband`s feelings. That`s the time I could broaden my horizons and meet many people  from the opposite sex without a burden. According to the China Daily: â€Å"There`s nothing wrong with a man or woman who is not married by 30. IT`s not about being disrespectful to parents or to social traditions. It`s certainly not a sure sign of pending poor health or psychological problems. â€Å" And according to an article in Helium written by Dawn Hawkins, â€Å"getting married when you are younger doesn`t allow you to grow as a single person quite enough sometimes, there are many things that you learn about yourself such as who you want to be and where you want to go in life as you get older. The older you are , the more chance you have of knowing exactly who you are.† Marriage implies an enormous responsibility, that why marrying late offers the best advantage. And marrying late provide us time to have emotional maturity, that is very crucial in dealing the rigour of married life later. So if you are beyond 36 and still complaining bitterly why a potential mate is yet to notice you, please think it twice. There are many advantages a single life can provide rather than taking a plunge for a wrong reason. Moreover, getting married late means that we could have more tools and resources and not to mention a stable emotion state to back on if the situation would not set well.

AIDs :: Free AIDS Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A.I.D.S   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A.I.D.S., also known as Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, is a disorder of the body’s immune system. In A.I.D.S. the body stops producing some of its important natural defenses against disease. Victims often die from disease of infections they cannot fight. A.I.D.S is the result of an infection known as HIV, human immunodeficiency virus. A person with HIV gradually loses function of their immune system, becoming less able to fight off common colds and virus, thus eventually leading to death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  HIV was first revealed in the early 80’s in homosexual men. Infection with HIV does not necessarily mean that a person does have A.I.D.S. A person can be HIV positive for years without developing illnesses that are associated with the A.I.D.S. disease. HIV is characterized by a gradual deterioration of the immune system. Cells known as T-Helper cells are disabled and killed during the course of the infection. These cells play an important part in the human body because they signal other cells to perform their special functions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The AIDS epidemic is growing very rapidly among minority populations and is a leading killer of African American males.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  HIV can be transmitted by contact with infected blood, most often by the sharing of drug needles or syringes contaminated with blood containing the virus. The risk of contacting the HIV virus from blood transfusions has decreased since earlier years. Now all donated blood is screened for any signs of the HIV virus. HIV is spread most commonly by having sex with someone who already has the virus. The virus can enter the human body through the lining of the vagina, vulva, penis, rectum, or mouth during sex.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Almost all HIV infected children get the HIV virus from their mothers before or during birth. A drug known as AZT can reduce risk of transmission of the virus from mother to child. The virus can also be transmitted when an HIV infected mother nurses her child with infected milk.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Once HIV enters the body it infects many cell and replicates itself rapidly. Two to four weeks after the person is infected with the virus, they begin to suffer flu-like symptoms. HIV also is spread through contact with infected blood. Before blood was screened for evidence of HIV infection and before heat-treating techniques to destroy HIV in blood products were introduced, HIV was transmitted through transfusions of contaminated blood.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Laboratory studies reveal that saliva has natural properties that limit the power of HIV to infect. Research studies of people infected with HIV have found no evidence that the virus is spread to others through saliva such as by kissing.

Gender Differences in Educational Achievement Essay

Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the claim that gender differences in educational achievement are primarily the ‘result of changes in society’ Some sociologists claim that gender differences in achievement are the result of external factors such as changes in wider society, e.g. The impact of feminist ideas and changing employment opportunities (as stated in Item A). However, this could also be an outcome of internal factors such as the education system becoming ‘feminised’, which could have impacted the performance of girls achievement, as it has risen at a faster rate at some levels and in some subjects. Some sociologists also argue that the media have exaggerated the extent and nature of any problem. External factors such as the impact of feminism and girls’ changing ambitions could have a large influence on gender differences in educational achievement. Since the 1960’s, feminism has challenged the traditional stereotypes of a woman’s role as mother and housewife within a patriarchal family. Feminism has also raises girls’ expectations and ambitions with regard to careers and family. These changes are partly reflected in media images and messages. A good illustration of this is McRobbie’s comparison of girls magazine in the 1970’s, where they stressed the importance of marriage to the 1990’s, where it was more focused on career and independence. Changes in the family and employment are also producing changes in girls’ ambitions. This is supported by Sue Sharpe’s research where she compared the results of interviews she carried out with girls in the 1970’s and girls in the 1990’s. In the 1970’s the girls had low aspirations and gave their priorities as love, marriage, husbands and children before careers. However, in the 1990’s girls were more likely to see their future as independent women with a career, rather than being dependent on a husband and his income. There have been a number of major changed to the family in the last 30 years. Some of these include an increase in the divorce rate, cohabitation and an increase in the number of lone parent families (mainly female headed). These changes are affecting girls’ attitudes towards education in a number of ways as increased numbers of female-headed lone-parent families may mean more women need to take on the major ‘bread winner’ role. This further creates a new financially independent, career-minded role model for girls. The need for good qualifications is made very clear and the girls aspirations tend to require academic effort. Becky Francis points out that boys are more likely to have career aspirations that are not only unrealistic but often require few formal qualifications, e.g. professional footballer. Evidence suggests that girls are more likely to spend their leisure time in ways which compliment their education and contribute to educational achievements. Mitsos and Browne place considerable emphasis on reading. Women are more likely to read than men, and mothers are more likely than fathers to read to their children. Therefore girls are more likely to have same-sex role models to encourage them to read. Poor language and literacy skills are likely to affect boys’ performance across a wide range of subjects. Whilst there are factors outside school, internal factors also impact gender differences in educational achievements hugely. According to Tony Sewell, boys fall behind in education because schools have become more ‘feminised’, as indicated in Item A. This means that feminine traits such as methodical working and attentiveness have been emphasised, which in result disadvantaged boys. The gender gap in achievement increased after the introduction of GCSEs and coursework in 1988. Mitsos and Browne argue that girls are more successful in coursework because they are better organised and more conscientious than boys. They found that girls tend to spend more time on their work, take more care on its presentation and are better at keeping deadlines. This all helps girls to benefit from the introduction of coursework in GCSE, AS and A Level. Sewell suggests that some of the coursework should be replaced with final exams and a greater emphasis should be put on outdoor adventure in the curriculum, as he thinks boys learn differently to girls. Jo Boaler argues that equal opportunities policies such as GIST and WISE are a key factor in the improvement of girls educational performance. Schools have become more meritocratic, which means that girls in general work harder than boys and achieve more. Teacher-pupil interactions were also identified as being very significant by Barber. For girls, feedback from teachers focused more on their work rather than their behaviour; for the boys it was the opposite. The low expectations of girls in science reinforced their own self-images; boys frequently overestimated their abilities. Research by Abraham (1995) suggests that teachers perceive boys as being more badly behaved than girls in the classroom, and as such expect bad behaviour. Teachers may also tend to be less strict with boys, giving them more leeway with deadlines and expecting a lower standard of work than they get of girls. This can allow boys to underachieve by failing to push them to achieve their potential. Some sociologists argue that the growth of ‘laddish’ subcultures has contributed to boys’ underachievement. Mac and Ghaill examines the relationship between schooling, work, masculinity and sexuality. He identifies a particular pupil subculture, the ‘macho lads’ which could help to explain why some boys underachieve in education. Jackson found that laddish behaviour was based on the idea that it is uncool to work hard at school. She found that boys based their laddish behaviour on the dominant view of masculinity – they acted tough, messed around, disrupted lessons and saw school work as feminine. Weiner, Arnot and David’s (1997) criticise this theory and have their own theory that the media have created a misleading moral panic which exaggerated and distorts the extent and nature of any problem. They argue that although the media are also interested in the underachievement of white, middle-class boys, they see black and working-class underachievement as a particular problem because it is likely to lead to unqualified, unemployable black and working-class men turning to crime. In conclusion, girls are improving in achievement whereas boys are underachieving due to external factors such as: the impacts of feminism; boys poorer literacy skills, unrealistic expectations and also girls changing ambitions and perceptions. On the other hand, there are also internal factors , which in my opinion are equally as valid and important, such as: laddish subculture, teacher interaction and attention, and also positive role models in schools. However the pre occupation with failing boys diverts attention from underachieving girls. Research by Plummer suggests that a high proportion of working class girls are failing in the school system. Cohen (1999) argues that the question is not ‘why are boys underachieving’, but ‘why boys’ underachievement has now become of concern. Her answer is that it is not just the destruction of the industrial bas of Britain; nor is it the result of pressure put on men by feminism, or by girls’ superior achievement in recent years.