Problem at State Farm Insurance

Problem at State Farm Insurance: there is too much mail sent to the clients. Despite the wonderful customer service and reputation that State Farm Insurance has, they are also known for mailing out an abundance of mail to their clients. Agencies receive regular client complaints that the mail sent is excessive and confusing. Unlike many insurance carriers that list all auto’s on the same policy, State Farm creates a policy for every home or vehicle insured creating individual mailers for each policy.For example, a household with five cars will get ten renewal letters in one year at minimum, if there are no changes to the policies. As part of the policy update process by the automated system, all changes made to a policy generate a mailer with a new copy of policy declaration page. This becomes problematic as clients resent vast amounts of letters and being to ignore them. In many cases the clients refuse to read the letters which contain very important information (such as a c ancelation notice or time sensitive requests for information) and their policies lapse.A recent example of this took place when an angry client named Kyle complained that he was not informed that his policy had canceled. When Kyle was told that State Farm mailed him several letters his response was: â€Å"I get so many letters from State Farm that I don’t even bother opening them! † This system I also useful and helps State Farm retain its clients by diligently reminding the clients of late payments to prevent cancellation obtain current policy holder information ensuring State Farm is collecting the correct premium.Automation also frees up time for State Farm employees to do more important tasks and saves the company money. If the problem of excess mail fixed and State Farm went paperless, State Farm would be considered a green company. The employees affected by the change would be the underwriters that could go paperless and become more efficient; however, the printe r maintenance people would be out of a job.

The European Parliament

The Efficiency of the Decision Making Process of EU Parliament Last Name First Name Course Name Course Number 08 October 2012 The European Parliament is separated into two legislations, primary and secondary. The primary legislation are the ground rules and basis for all EU action. The secondary legislation involves decisions, directives and regulations which are based on the objectives and principle in the treaties (Bungenberg, 2011). How does the EU parliament make a decision? The standard decision-making process is called â€Å"Ordinary Legislative Procedure† or the co-decision.This presents the direct election in the EU Parliament that decides together in the EU legislation in the Council, both the EU legislation and Commission Drafts. The EU treaties is the foundation of the rule of law, this defines every taken action by the EU which is founded on treaties that have been decided on democratic and voluntary approval of the EU countries. This is the Treaty of Lisbon, which developed the policy number of areas where the co-decision is employed (Bermann, 2011) The UE parliament also has more control to disapprove any proposal in the Council.The directives, regulations and other acts are established to set new EU treaties which are obtained by different forms of legal decisions. These legislation involve opinions, recommendations, directives and regulations, Some are creating, others are binding, some can be implemented to all EU nations, others not. The combined decision-making process of the EU parliament has shared to develop the effectiveness of EU policy when it comes to the environmental legislation in EU countries. The parliament, as veto power with co-legislator in the procedure of co-decision, has been important to organizational actors.It is connected to the EU commission, which is a non-voted body, to delegate with its concern rights to the drafting of the election (Avbelj, 2011). Moreover, its informal institutions and interactions with othe r nations, the Council of Ministers, National Parliament and the EU Commission, have been specifically significant in creating more legitimate and appropriate benefits for the proper application of internalizing many environmental externalities, common policies (Campuzano, 2011).The decision making of the EU Parliament is efficient because they are guided by the objectives, cohesion and sustainable growth of the organization. References AVBELJ Matej, KOMAREK Jan (eds. ). Constitutional pluralism in the European Union and beyond. Oxford:  Hart,  2011. BERMANN George (et al. ). Cases and materials on European Union law. St. Paul, MN:  Thomson/West,  2011. BUNGENBERG Marc, GRIEBEL Jorn, HINDELANG Sreefen (eds. ). International investment law and EU law. Berlin:  Springer,  2011. CAMPUZANO DIAZ Beatriz (et al. ). Latest developments in EU private international law. Cambridge:  Intersentia,  2011.

Does the (apparently) Value-Laden Nature of Science give us Reason to Essay

Does the (apparently) Value-Laden Nature of Science give us Reason to Doubt the Objectivity and Reliability of Science - Essay Example In the paragraphs that follow I try to identify salient arguments put forward by leading scientists representative of the epistemology under review. Science may be defined as the human endeavour to explore, investigate and understand the physical universe. Scientific method used to gain knowledge of natural phenomena includes observation, forming hypotheses or theories, conducting experiments to test hypotheses, and drawing conclusions in accepting, modifying, or rejecting hypotheses. In antiquity, philosophy encompassed all knowledge. In modern times, science has become the repository of almost all knowledge, completely epistemic and objective. Physics, from Newton’s Laws, to Einstein’s Theory of Relativity led to many technological advances, and continues to be the paradigmatic science given exact mathematical expression. Until quite recently, scientists believed that they were engaging in a value-free, positivistic and Cartesian enterprise untainted by nonepistemic v alues. Gregory Mikkelson introduces the subject of ‘Values in Ecology’ by pointing to the historical link between modern science and colonialism, an unlikely outcome given the much vaunted scientific criterion of impartial objectivity. To enhance the objectives of cultural and biological diversity he advocates ‘value-frankness’ instead of the outdated ideal of ‘value- freedom’. He identifies the links between ethics and science and critiques the trend towards ascribing monetary value to ecosystems. He also argues for a ‘foundational concept in ecology – that of an ecological community’ echoing other contributors to the debate. He views ethics as a branch of science examining what is ‘good’ and what is ‘right’ and also the relation between the two concepts. Ethics is about objective properties like ‘richness, diversity and harmony’ and not merely our subjective opinions of them. Even the old ideal of a value-free science was founded on ethical-subjectivist notions promoting that ideal. By openly announcing the ethical foundations of scientific inquiry, it allows for better critical assessment of its conclusions. He shows how the attempt to free ecology from values has resulted in privileging the rich with adverse effects on conservation. Next, Mark Sagoff critiques the current trend to place an economic value on ecosystem services. He says that nature has no economic value. Wind, soil, water, and the pollination services of insects are provided free, but their economic ‘non-value’ has no bearing on their intrinsic value to human beings. He even places timber in this category. Biodiversity cannot be defended on economic grounds as some economists have done in putting the cost of future environmental pollution in monetary terms. Advances in technology have compensated ‘more than adequately’ for the depletion of natural stocks. Biotechnology continues to produce better products and helps lower prices. An example cited is transgenic trees with ‘fast growth, cold-hardness, uniform and predictable quality, disease resistance, etc.’ He asserts that ‘price does not correlate with value, benefit or utility.’ He wants us not to ‘regard nature as a resource to exploit’ but ‘a heritage and an endowment to maintain’. Sagoff makes a clear value statement in defence of new thinking in ecology. I now come to Elliott and McKaughan’

Why is Japanese Video Game Culture so Different from U.S Research Paper

Why is Japanese Video Game Culture so Different from U.S - Research Paper Example Video game development and promotion is quite different in Japan as compared to the United States. Some of the best-selling games in America include those with more adult-oriented themes that depict combat scenarios or ongoing brutality in head-to-head auto racing. This suggests that there is a large market of youths and adults that find this type of content most appropriate for their gaming needs. Because of the high cultural acceptance of games with brutal or graphic images, there is little restriction on their distribution outside of generic warning labels that describe the nature of the game for concerned parents or children that do not wish to be exposed to bloody or explicit content. In Japan, there is also little regulation in place in the gaming industry, attributable to the high profit margin that games provide in this country as well as different values related to free expression. Japan has the majority of its governmental roots based on their constitution which expresses the importance of free speech and individualized sovereignty over decision-making that should be free of express governmental controls or regulations. Japanese citizens value their individualized rights as consumers as is protected by their constitution. Far beyond the economic value that the gaming industry provides Japanese leadership, cultural beliefs are what drive specific games to find higher sales volumes. Much different than the United States, Japanese game-players prefer games that are less intense and more playful, which supports the high sales of the number one ranked game, â€Å"Mario & Luigi: Bowser’s Inside Story† for Nintendo DS.

Guy couples should be allowed to adopt children Essay

Guy couples should be allowed to adopt children - Essay Example It is high time the remaining States emulate them, take cognizance of the overwhelming arguments in favor of the practice, stop their unfair restriction and allow gay and lesbian couples to adopt children. Firstly, there are an inordinately large number of children in the country who are on the adoption waiting list. Rob Woronoff, spokesperson of Child Welfare League of America {CWLA} has gone on record to state that the child welfare system in the U.S. is mired in deep crisis because there are not enough families coming forward to adopt children. North American Council on Adoptable Children reports that nearly 520,000 children are in foster homes in the U.S. Out of these, although 120,000 are ready for adoption, only 50,000 ultimately reach permanent homes every year (Stone http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-02-20-gay-adoption-foster_x.htm). A large percentage of the children left behind are the ‘odd’ ones: older children, or children with special needs. The children left behind, especially the ‘odd’ ones, have been accepted in foster care by same sex couples, who are now desirous of adopting the children (Belge http://lesbianlife.about.com/cs/families /a/adoption.htm). Renowned actress Rosie O’Donnell {a lesbian living with her same sex partner Kelli O’Donnell and their 4 adopted children} unerringly points to the reason for same sex couples’ partiality towards adopting ‘odd’ children: â€Å"As a gay person as a child, you kind of know what it’s like to be the odd one out† (Stone http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-02-20-gay-adoption-foster_x.htm). By not allowing adoption, the authorities are not permitting the already existing loving relationship between children and same sex couples to blossom into full-fledged fruition acceptable by society. This attitude is especially unfair to the children as they are being refused the opportunity to live in safe, sound and permanent households (Belge

Condoleezza Rice - On Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Condoleezza Rice - On Leadership - Essay Example She was the first woman to occupy this key post of national security adviser. She is the most academic member of the Bush foreign affairs team and, because of her gender, background and youth, one of the most distinctive. The recent Forbes ranking of the world’s most powerful women, Rice still placed at the top despite the Bush administration’s supposed failed policies in Iraq. Richard Melanson (2005) in examining American foreign policy commented that Rice proved a relatively weak national security advisor because she generally deferred to the vice president and the secretary of state. (p. 322) Supposedly, this was unfortunate because the â€Å"group think† environment in which the basic assumptions about the world and America’s role in it went unchallenged within this inner circle of policymakers. But this is wrong. Melanson’s commentary in fact underscored a manifestation of Fiedler’s Contingency Model in Rice’s style during the mentioned circumstances. As the national security advisor, Rice was not expected to originate or debate ideas, and single out any particular view within the Bush administration. This finds credence in Simon Serfaty’s argument. To quote: Her primary responsibility was to absorb al of the ideas, all equally plausible and all convincing in different measure, before compressing them in ways that would enable the president, in words of one of her predecessors, â€Å"to perceive the essential among a mass of apparent facts† and â€Å"to impose some direction,† meaning make decisions which Rice would then coordinate and implement. (p. 86) In short, Rice played the part. She had displayed an impeccable ability to remain in the sidelines in serving a wider and greater objective. Her teamwork approach displayed a subtle self-confidence, sensitivity to others a degree of determination that supersede all else in order to achieve goals. One must remember that Rice had a direct access to

Child Psychology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Child Psychology - Research Paper Example Friendship tends to develop between people of similar age groups, sex, race, education, income, and occupational and marital status (Noller, et. al., 97-98). People tend to relate and communicate with people on their same level. Similarities are often the major attraction to building friendships. There are some cases of friendship that develops because of certain experiences that brings them together, allowing them to share something together. There are rarely friendships between two people without no connection on any of the above mentioned groupings or experiences. People tend to gravitate towards other people of the same background or of the same experiences as they have since the similarities tend to ground the friendship, make the friendship even more meaningful as it allows them to share something between them. This is mostly true for friendships between young adults. As one expands his environment, or his horizon, one tends to search for a group to belong with. This leads to s earching for people, whom he can develop a personal relationship with. Thus, this proves that one’s personality can easily be identified through the set of friends that they have and maintain. This is especially true in early adulthood friendship, as one faces different life experiences, he encounters different people which they can relate to. An example of this is the workplace, wherein one tends to gravitate towards people of the same position, income and educational background. In young adults, there are four major issues in the study of friendships (Noller, et. al., 98-100). These are the extent and depth of friendships, perceptions and understanding of friendship, gender differences and behavioral processes in the friendship. In the early adulthood stage, one experiences drastic changes in his environment, whether he is in the later part of his college life or on the early stages of a professional career

The Goal Effects of New Tools on the Operation Management Practices Research Paper

The Goal Effects of New Tools on the Operation Management Practices - Research Paper Example Alex is given a time constraint of three months in which he has to save his plant from collapsing. In the course of saving that plant, Alex meets an old colleague named Jonah (a physicist). Jonah helps Alex save the plant by guiding him to the right path (Goldratt & Cox, 1992). The concept applied in The Goal was from the new practices applied in today’s world. There was a theory named the six-sigma theory which focused on the concept of continuously improving the quality of production and eliminating the waste products just like the lean production concept. Both the concepts were merged and applied in the book (Jacob, Bergland, & Jeff, 2010). However, in the recent years new tools and practices have been introduced based on the use of the Internet as web based business applications. E-commerce is also known as buying and selling of goods or services through the Internet technology. This new trend has increasingly gained popularity, thus changing dynamics of businesses by providing high satisfaction (Gunasekaran, Marri, McGaughey, & Nebhwani, 2002). Now businesses interact by making transactions around the globe in minutes, reducing their operational costs and eventually leading to generation of high revenues. Presently, the orders placed are high in volume as the market is demand driven and the orders are placed more on the basis of Customization category using just-in-time (JIT) rather than batch process system. The business to business (B2B) transactions are gradually changing as the trend is shifting towards business to customers (B2C). The cost of Internet technologies and databases is often high because of which the cost of inventory is increased (Gunasekaran, Marri, McGaughey, & Nebhwani, 2002). The new tools play a vital role in determining what steps Alex would have taken if they were taken into consideration after defining the goal of increasing net profits, return on investment, and the positive cash flow. Alex would have looked at the market conditions for ascertaining the demand for the product and subsequent estimation of orders (sales) at a given period of time. Based on this concept, the inventory costs would be calculated (Gunasekaran, Marri, McGaughey, & Nebhwani, 2002). Based on new tools systems of today, Alex would have a different goal overall. Based on the prior information about Alex’s goals on increasing profits, Alex would focus on the marketing of the company and providing high customer satisfaction. High customer satisfaction involves customization of the product. The Clientele approa ch would be taken into consideration at this point, i.e., having more clients to satisfy and relatively less orders to take. However, in case of Alex orders were high from one client with price remaining the same but the operations of business processes and costs were managed through altering manufacturing process. The marketing approach would lead to focusing on creating awareness of the service which the company has to offer and the cheapest form of marketing would be used that is the internet to save costs (Goldratt & Cox, 1992). In this book, it has been said that anything invested into the business including assets used in the system to make sales are considered as inventories of the business. In order to

Public Administration and Democratic Governance Essay

Public Administration and Democratic Governance - Essay Example Traditionally public administration has been the forte of orthodox public administrators. They believed in monopolistic policy making and forced enforcement of these policies. With "Change" occurring at rapid phase democratic governance in public administration is inevitable to provide responsive and effective service to citizens. Citizen awareness has been another driving force enabling changes in functioning of the public administration. Citizens are more demanding, ask for more out of less and have raised the bar for public administrators from just governance to good governance. This notion has moved the responsibilities of public servants from service providers to the ones responsible for greater public good and minority upliftment. The three branches of governance - Legislative, Executive and Judiciary are no more seen as separate entities, instead, their packaged service accessibility is one of the other major responsibilities of a public administrator. The drivers mentioned above lay the stepping stone for "New Public Administration" (NPM). This initiative has become a synonym for public administration's effort towards democratic governance aiming to achieve greater economic and social development. The self governance process introduced by NPM is driven by innovation at all levels intending to face the turbulent dissatisfaction environment. Decentraliza

Assignment 4 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

4 - Assignment Example It allows the viewer to visualize the world with time consciousness and realization. Baroque style represents have dramatic and emotional values. The arts depict difference in time at particular periods of artistry. Besides, the arts have emotional meaning and dramatic nature. Impressionism art influences viewers’ attitude towards images and the environment. The art convinces viewers to see landscape or the world a beautiful and supportive surrounding. As viewers’ imagines being in the same world as depicted by the art, their thinking and manner of visualizing the world substantial changes. Consequently, they become part of the painting. Moreover, impressionism instils sense of reality into the viewers’ minds. Romanticism enables the viewer to visualize partners in emotional and affectionate manner. It presents the viewers with an opportunity to understand romantic issues and develop an appropriate mind to deal with anticipated complications. Romanticism style reflects modern values bestowed in love affairs including emotions and marriage

Form and Structure for The Mikado Essay Example for Free

Form and Structure for The Mikado Essay Gilbert and Sullivans The Mikado is an operetta and it is played sometimes melodramatically, sometimes realistically. The main theme of The Mikado is love. Its main content is a parody of general love stories that start and end happily ever after. This makes it humorous. It is also a satire of the British Empress of India, Queen Victoria. * Although it is an operetta, the Mikado is a well-made play; it has a beginning, middle and end. * Yum-Yum is in love with herself; this is shown at the preparation of her marriage. Nanki-Poo does love Yum-Yum but he is only looking for an escape from Katisha, and Ko-Kos love for Katisha is purely to save him from death. A lot of the story is based around execution because Ko-Kos job is Lord High Executioner. Nanki-Poo wants to be executed at one point because he thinks that he can never get Yum-Yum. This keeps the audience interested because they would want to see how an execution would be staged as such staging rarely happens. This is a plot device to complicate the narrative so that the story becomes ever more farcical. For example Ko-Ko receives a message from the Mikado stating there has been a lack of executions so Ko-Ko must execute someone within a month. This makes things more difficult because Ko-Ko must kill himself before he executes anyone else. Structure The Mikado conforms to a structure typical of many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas. This structure represents a triangle: First it includes an aural factor of lush, enjoyable music, which get the audiences feat tapping in the theatre. Second, it includes a visual factor of a colourful, striking setting which make the audience amazed by the set. Third, it includes an intellectual factor of a ridiculous, amusing, topically satiric story, which adds comedy, and the audience laugh. The play starts with the introduction to all the characters, making it easy for the audience to understand the characters better. The situation is set and the story is structured, the conflict begins and the action gets underway. The middle lets the story flow smoothly, more comical happenings such as when Katisha wants to give away Nanki Poos true identity. The ending is conventionally and traditionally happy with everyone gleeful. But, ironically, there are no elements of true love in the plot. Gilbert and Sullivan vary the type of songs to keep the audience entertained. There are solos, duets, trios, madrigals and full cast ensembles. Solos are used to focus the scene on only one character and how they feel. E. g. Nanki-Poo. Duets are usually used when two people are in love or if two people have a problem, e. g. Yum-Yum and Nanki-Poo. Trios are used when a lot of information is given out for the audience to take in, e. g. Yum-Yum, Peep-Bo and Pitti-Sing. Three little maids from school are we. The madrigal is sung before the wedding. This song is so that the characters can thoroughly enjoy themselves and it livens up the moment by four people singing the same thing. Probably singing in harmonious unison. The full cast ensembles are there to introduce the large characters e. g. the Mikado; these songs are lively and let the audience imagine what is about to come, Miya Sama Miya Sama.

English Present: Simple And The Present Progressive

English Present: Simple And The Present Progressive Introduction: As a teacher of English to Arabic speaking students I have encountered a number of specific difficulties Arab students have in mastering the English language. In this paper, I would like to focus on a particular grammatical problem they have in the area of verb tenses because, of all the mistakes that my students make, mistakes with verbs and verb tenses impede communication to the greatest degree. The specific problem I will attempt to look at the area of verbs is the problem that Arabic speakers have in using and confusing the present progressive. I will base the evidence for these mistakes on actual writing errors that Arabic students have made. Mistakes such as I am live in Abu Dhabi. come up frequently in my students writing. This paper is basically a contrastive analysis since I feel that the majority of my students problems in this area come from mother tongue interference. However, as will be noted below, this does not mean I rule out other sources of errors such as intralingual errors. The following is the outline of this paper: In the first section of this paper, I will describe the various aspects of the grammatical structure of the present simple and the present progressive in the English language. In the second section of the paper, I will contrast the grammatical structure of the present simple and the present progressive with its Arabic counterparts. I will show how Arabic has structures that vary significantly and radically from their English counterparts. In the third section, I will introduce a number of examples takes from students written work and give an indepth analysis of the possible sources of the errors, mainly with respect to mother tongue interference, but also looking at some possible intralingual sources for these errors as well. Finally, in the last section, I will attempt to suggest a general theoretical approach to dealing with such problems Part One: A grammatical description of the English Present Simple and the Present Progressive: The simple present tense As we already know, the simple present of every verb (with the exception of the verb BE, which I will not be dealing with as a grammatical description since it is not the specific focus of this paper) is identical in every person with the basic unmarked base form of the verb except for the third person forms he, she and it to which we generally add s or es (Quirk 1985, p.98). However, numerous irregularities arise in the spelling and pronunciation of this third person form (Leicester 1998, 12.12)(Thomson 1986, p. 150). Questions are formed by using the auxiliaries do, does, in the present, and did in the past by putting all these before the subject. Negation is formed in the same way using dont (or do not) and doesnt, (or does not) in the present, and didnt (or did not) in the past. These forms go after the subject. In addition, the verb must be changed to the basic form. The simple present is used for statements that are always true, (e.g. The earth revolves around the sun.) (Azar 1989,p.2). The simple present is also used for events, actions or situations which are true in the present period of time and which, for all we know, may continue indefinitely, (e.g. Fatima goes to school at Zayed University.) (Azar 1989, p.2) What we are saying in these expressions is that this is how things stand at the present moment (Huddleston 1984, p.81). A further use of the simple present is for actions that are habitual, things that happen repeatedly, (e.g. We study a lot.) (Alexander 1988, p.163)(Quirke 1985, p.107). Observations and declarations are another use of the present simple, as in the sentence (It says here that there is a new night club opening.)(Alexander 19988, p.163). The present simple can also be used to express the future, especially when we want to express strong certainty, (e.g. When we graduate, we will get jobs.). Swan, Huddleston, Lewis, Thomson and Quirke, et. al. also add eight other functions of the present simple which might come up in other contexts such as: Demonstrations and commentaries (e.g. First, I take a bowl and break two eggs in it, thenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..) The structures here comes and there goes, (e.g. here comes your husband.) Promises and oaths (e.g. I promiseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦., I swear à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, He deniesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..) Formal correspondence (e.g. We write to advise you.) Instructions (e.g. You go left, turn rightà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.) Stories (e.g. In act one, Hamlet meets the ghost of his father.), which Huddleston calls the historic present. In expressions of understanding such as hear, see, gather (e.g. I hear youre getting married.) Finally, the simple present can be used in newspaper headlines (e.g. RUSSIANS RAISE OBJECTIONS) Since there are so many instances of when to use the present simple, is there any way to summarize all of these? I concur with Lewis explanation that the present simple: 1-Expresses an event as a total single point in time. 2-Expresses an event as a matter of fact. 3-Expresses an event as immediate rather than remote. The present progressive tense Both the simple and progressive forms usually tell us that an action takes place. But the progressive forms also tell us that an activity is or was, or will be, etc. in progress, or thought of as being in progress. In other words, the present progressive tells us that the speaker sees an action as taking place over a period of time as opposed to a point in time. In addition researchers would add that the speaker sees the period as limited (Lewis 1986; Leech, 1975; Huddleston, 1984; Quirke, 1985). The present progressive tense is formed with the present of be (am/is/are) (which adds aspect and voice), said by Quirke to be the finite verb, plus the ing form (the non-finite form) (Quirke 1985, p. 120). There are no complications with the additional ing form; however the spelling of the ing has some irregularities and needs to be taught to students e.g. write, writing; run, running; begin, beginning; lie, lying). (Alexander 1988; Huddleston 1984; Quirke 1985). Question formation takes place by switching the place of the auxiliary be and the subject. Negation is achieved by inserting not between the subject and the auxiliary or by contracting nt with the auxiliary verb forms (with the exception of the first person singular form am) (Quirke, 1985). In the classroom, the classical reason given for why we use the present progressive is that it shows an uncompleted action in progress at the time of speaking. To emphasise this, we often use adverbials like now, at the moment, just, etc. For example, Hes not home at the moment, hes working. (Quirke 1985). The present progressive can also be used to describe actions which have not been happening for long, or are thought of as being temporary situations, and which are going on around now, e.g. Abdullah is living with his aunt until he can find a place of his own.. A further use of the present progressive is to refer to activities and events planned for the future. We generally use adverbials in such sentences unless the meaning is clear from context, e.g. Were spending next Thursday in Abu Dhabi. (Azar 1989; Huddleston 1984; Quirke 1985). The present progressive can also be used to talk about developing and changing situations, e.g. That child is getting bigger all the time. (Swan 1980). Sometimes the present progressive can be used to talk about feelings, such as I am feeling fine. or My back is hurting me.. The present progressive is used to show repeated actions along with adverbs such as always, constantly, continually, forever, perpetually, and repeatedly, such as He is always helping people.. In this sense it conveys not temporariness, but continuousness. (Leech 1975; Huddleston 1984). The present progressive also is used to show repeated actions that are happening around now, e.g. He is studying a lot of English these days. Why is he going to the library? (Swan 1980). Dynamic versus Stative Verbs in the present simple and the progressive tenses Dynamic/progressive verbs refer to verbs which show actions which are deliberate or voluntary, e.g. Im building a house., or changing situations, e.g. Hes becoming fat.. Dynamic verbs can be used in both the progressive as well as the simple forms e.g. I eat at 5:00 (everyday). as opposed to Im eating now.. Stative verbs (also known as non-progressive verbs) are verbs which indicate a state, condition or experience. Specifically, stative verbs fall into categories such as feelings (like, love), thinking/believing (think, know, realize), wants and preferences (need, want), perception and the senses (smell, see), and being, seeming, having, and owning (seem, look, appear). Stative verbs are generally not used in the progressive forms (Quirke 1985). However some stative verbs can be used in both the present simple and the progressive tenses, which results in a different meaning in each form, e.g. Im thinking of a solution. as opposed to I think he is the best man for the job. or These flowers smell good. as opposed to Latifa is smelling the flowers in the garden.) (Alexander 1988; Azar 1989; Azar 1986; Quirke 1985). The present simple versus the present progressive Swan makes note of a number of areas where students might confuse the present simple with the present continuous. A. We use the simple present to talk about things that are true for the present period of time, or, as was noted above, to say this is how things stand at the present moment for the foreseeable future. However, if the event is temporary and is taking place right now, we use the present progressive. Afrah studies at the Higher Colleges. Afrah is studying her English lesson. B. We use the present progressive to talk about habitual actions if these are happening around the moment of speaking. Fayrouz and Fatima are preparing for the Eid holidays. However, if the habitual action is not closely connected to the moment of speaking, we generally use the present simple. I go to Saudi Arabia once every three years. C. Verbs that refer to physical feelings can sometimes be used in either the simple present or the present progressive. I feel great! or Im feeling great! My head hurts. or My head is hurting. (Swan 1980). PART TWO A grammatical description of the Arabic present simple and the present progressive In this part of the paper, I would like to give readers a very brief background of the Arabic verb system in regard to the simple present and the present progressive. The Arabic verb system is very complicated. However, this does not mean that a teacher has to master the Arabic language before s/he is able to pinpoint errors that may be a result of the interference of Arabic in English. One can study the Arabic language with the goal of simply understanding the structure, rather than with the goal of speaking and writing in the language. Let us first look at the present simple, then the present progressive, and finally the verb to be since all of these grammatical items are specifically relevant to the particular problem at hand. A.The Present Simple In Arabic, the formation of the present simple is radically different from English, since Arabic uses a root system made up of the three most important consonants (though two or four consonant roots do sometimes occur). In Arabic the three basic consonants (the root) stay the same but it is by changes in the vowels, the suffixes and the prefixes that tense and number are indicated. It is vastly more complicated than the way some English verbs change tense by changing vowels, e.g. give, gave. For example, the sentence, he learns could be represented phonetically by ya-droo-soo. The d-r-s is the root, ya is the part that indicates this is a third person singular masculine verb (though this is not the pronoun). The pattern of the vowels and consonants (ya + c1 + c2+ oo + c3 + oo), lets the speaker know that this is the present tense. In contrast, the past could be represented by a different pattern; hence, he learned, dar-ah-sah has the pattern (c1 + ai or ah + c2 + ai or ah + c3 + ah) (and this is just one pattern out of ten!) From a sentence point of view the verb in Arabic is not necessarily treated as the nucleus of a sentence and, in the case of the copula verb BE, can be omitted entirely (as we shall see below). The verb can also be placed at the beginning of the sentence. Like its English counterpart, the present simple tense in Arabic expresses a habitual action. There are other functions, but they are not relevant to this discussion. B.The Present Progressive In general, the present simple form is also used in Arabic to express the idea of a continuous action occurring in the present. Hence, the English sentence He is working now. in Arabic becomes He works now. (represented phonetically by huwwah yaamaloo al eyn.) What is he doing? in Arabic becomes What does he do? (represented phonetically by mehzah yafaaloo al eyn?) Hence, in almost all cases, the present simple form is used to show the idea of continuous action in the present. However, there is a single verb form in Arabic called the ism-ul-fail which is the exact parallel to the idea of continuous action. However, the difference in Arabic is that the ism-ul-fail is used very sparingly compared to English and then only for some very specific verbs of movement, or verbs that indicate changing from one state to another (going up, going in, going down, walking to a place, leaving a place, etc.). Since the ism-ul-fail is radically different in form from the English progressive it is doubtful that any interference in form occurs. C.A Few Points About The Verb BE as a Copula Although BE as a copula is not the focus of this paper, it does deserve mention here for two specific reasons. The first point is that BE in Arabic, when it is the copula in the present tense, is unwritten and unspoken (although this is not true of the copula in the past tense or the future where it is written and spoken). (Kharma, 1989, p. 89). For example, the literal translation of the sentence Ahmed is a student. is Ahmed student.. So it is conceivable that students might leave BE out as a copula OR as the helping verb in the present progressive because it does not exist in the present tense in Arabic (although there are other additional reasons why students might forget to add it to the present progressive as we shall see). The second point is that BE is used so often in English, in so many different kinds of structures, and that it is so irregular, that it might simply add to the confusion of students (Kharma 1989, p. 161). Students who keep on being corrected for leaving out the verb to be when it is necessary, may for example, hypercorrect themselves and start to write it everywhere. Again, we shall explore this issue further below. PART THREE A look at some common written errors made by Arabic speaking students when using the English present simple and present progressive Finding the exact causes of any error can be a difficult and meticulous task. This is partly because there may be multiple reasons as to why students make one particular error and these causes may also overlap at any given time. In addition, it is extremely problematic, even for a native speaker of both Arabic and English, (which I am) to know exactly what is going on linguistically in the mind of a student when s/he makes such an error. However, having said that, even with these obstacles, we can at least make some good hypotheses and lists of possibilities as to why these errors occur with our own students. As a result, we will be able to generate classroom strategies and methods in order to correct and remedy these sorts of mistakes. The following categories of errors are the most common that I have found in students written work with regards to the simple present versus the present progressive. I will look at each category in turn, and offer an analysis of the sources for these types of error. Category One Fatima studies now. Ahmed does his homework now. In these sentences, the intention of the Arabic speaking writer seems to be to convey the meaning of what in English would be a present continuous action, expressed by the present continuous tense. This is clear by the use of the adverb now or in the case of other examples not shown here, from other adverbs or the context of the sentence. In examples one and two, the Arabic speaker seems to be transferring the rules of his native language into English. The Arabic speaker usually uses only the present simple to express events that would be expressed in English by both the present simple and the present continuous. Category Two Mariam cant talk, she eating now. This kind of mistake is a bit more problematic in terms of analysis. It could be that the Arabic speaker, feeling that the full meaning of the action is expressed in the verb with the ing, has decided that the am/are/is forms are redundant and unnecessary. It could also be the case that this mistake is a direct transfer of a particular grammatical form in Arabic. In certain cases Arabic speakers do express the present continuous with a verb and prefix change (called ism-ul-fail), but without the corresponding be form. For example, the literal translation of the sentence Ahmed is running. is Ahmed running. . Category Three Are you knowing the way to Dubai? I am wanting to see my family. In this case, the student has learned the present progressive form, but is over generalizing it to all verbs (or perhaps does not remember or has not been taught the rules for exceptions such as the above). These types of errors could very well be intralingual. This over generalization could also be found in sentences that have the function of explaining, demonstrating teaching or narrating such as: Next I am pouring the oil into the cooking pan. Ali is passing the ball to the goalkeeper. Category Four I am live in Abu Dhabi. We are study English. This category is probably the most difficult to analyze. This is because it is unclear whether the Arabic speaker is making the mistake of adding the additional am/is/are form while trying to use the present tense, or making the mistake of forgetting to use the present participle while trying to use the present progressive tense. That is, did the speaker intend to say I live in Abu Dhabi. and use the extra am form by mistake, or did s/he intend to say I am living in Abu Dhabi. and forget the correct present participle form? Of course, there are other possibilities but these seem like the two most likely. We must obviously look at the context of the paragraph to see if we can get the gist of what the speaker meant. The following is a more detailed analysis of these two possibilities from the standpoint of the students reasoning. 1. If we believe from the context that the student was trying to use the present simple and added the additional am in error, then the following analyses apply: A. The student may be confused by the lack of inflectional endings in English, since Arabic is a highly inflected language, and every personal pronoun has a distinct corresponding inflected verb form. The similarity of the verb forms in I live, you live, etc. may seem very awkward to the Arabic speaker. Hence, they may want to remedy the situation by distinguishing the verb forms in some way by, for example, adding an exceedingly familiar and overused verb form like am, are, or is. B. The student may be over generalising based on what they have learned about the present continuous. That is, they may have learned how to form the present continuous quite easily since there is no mother tongue interference from Arabic, (although they may not have mastered its use). They then may go on to conclude that every verb in the present simple or present continuous in English needs to be preceded by am/is/are. C. Similarly, the student may be hypercorrecting. They may have been corrected so many times for forgetting to use the verb BE in their sentences e.g. Ahmed happy, that they may start to feel that every sentence needs the verb BE. 2. However, if we believe that the student was trying to use the present continuous tense and used the present simple live (instead of the present participle living), then the following analyses apply: A. The student may not have correctly understood how to form the present participle by adding ing to the end of the verb. B. Perhaps students have simply forgotten to add the ing prefix because the structure is so different in their language. This is by no means an exhaustive analysis. However, these are, from my experience and collaboration with other colleagues, both native and non-native speakers, some of the major possibilities. PART FOUR Pedogogical implications of the above research for teaching the present simple and the present progressive to Arabic speaking students From the evidence I have presented here, I believe it is clear that many of the mistakes in using the present simple and the present progressive in form (such as omission of the verb to be in the simple present for Arabic speakers, e.g. I studying), as well as other mistakes in usage (e.g. using the simple present when the present progressive is required) seem to be traceable directly to Arabic mother tongue interference. Based on my analyses, reading and discussion with colleagues, I do feel that in this particular area, teachers of EFL to Arabic speakers must consider mother tongue interference as a major impediment to learning the present tense versus the present progressive. If we know that mother tongue interference is the cause of many errors, what should this imply for our teaching? One thing which I think it does not imply is that we teach English from the point of view of the mother tongue. For example, trying to get students to understand English grammar through word for word translations or using the grammatical structure of Arabic to help students to understand the grammatical structure of English are only useful in certain cases, and then only by someone who is a master of both languages. My experience in reading the research, being bilingual and talking to Arabic speaking students who are at the final stages of their English studies leads me to believe that, at least in the case of Arabic and English, that the two languages are sufficiently different that they are both best looked at in their own respective grammars. Students must be made, not only to think in English, but to understand English grammar in terms of English grammar without constantly switching back and forth to compare it with Arabic. Such practices are ineffective and will cause confusion among students. As Lewis says students should never expect the foreign language to be like their ownà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..the fact that English has verb forms that contain [be] as an auxiliary does not suggest that other languages ought to have a corresponding formà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.students should be positively encouraged to explore the foreign language within itself rather than through the expectations they bring from their own. (Lewis, 1986, pp. 164-165). In addition, I should add that intralingual factors can also be at work when students make such errors (in addition to context specific factors like student motivation, teaching style and competence, etc.). For example, on the intralingual side, we know that students of ESL from many different language groups and even children make common mistakes with the verb to be. Therefore, many such mistakes might be intralingual. (Mattar 1989). Hence, when we try to analyse our students errors we should not be prejudiced to any one theory and we should try to be open to looking at all possible sources of errors. What we as teachers should be doing in the classroom is continually collecting research on student errors and student learning styles in order to form hypotheses about why such errors occur and why such one approach worked and another didnt. We should then be trying to test these hypotheses to see if they are true or not, and afterwards share this information w ith other teachers in similar situations. Only then will we be able to understand why students make errors and what is the most effective way to correct them. Cell Membrane: Structure And Function Cell Membrane: Structure And Function A cell is a dynamic and a complex structure surrounded by a membrane known as the plasma membrane. This acts like a barrier between the inside of the cell and the outside resulting in different chemical environments on the two sides. The cell membrane is not restricted to the outer surface but is also present inside surrounding the organelles. These biological membranes have played a crucial role in the evolution from prokaryotes to multicellular eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, there is only one type of membrane present i.e. the plasma membrane but the unicellular eukaryotes have intracellular membranes compartmentalizing its contents into different functional chambers known as organelles. Each organelle though performs its own specific function, they cross-talk with each other via these membranes in order to work as a unit. Further, different cells in multicellular eukaryotes communicate with each other through these membranes. The membrane, therefore serves a dual purpose of both protecting the interior of the cell from its external environment and also provides a communication interface between the cell and its surroundings or other cells. The diverse functions performed by biological membranes can be attributed to the molecular composition and structure of these membranes. Models for Cell Membrane Structure It took almost a century to develop the present accepted model of a cell membrane based on various physiological and biophysical studies. Physiological experiments involving the transport of molecules and ions across the membrane by Overton in 1899 suggested that the membrane is composed of lipid molecules. Later, Langmuir (1917) showed that lipids when spread on water using Langmuir trough form a monomolecular layer on the surface of the water by calculating the area per lipid molecule. The hydrophobic tails of these lipids were bent and protruding out from the surface of the water. When this method for measuring the area per lipid molecule was applied to the lipids extracted from the known amount of erythrocyte membranes, Gorter and Grendel (1925) concluded that the lipids exist as a bilayer and not a monolayer in a membrane giving birth to the lipid- bilayer membrane model. In 1935, Danielli and Davson elaborated on the model based on the studies measuring the surface tension that membranes are made up of phospholipid bilayer sandwiched between two protein layers. Based on optical imaging of membrane morphology using electron microscopy, Robertson argued that the basic structure of all the membranes is same and proposed the Unit Membrane Model in 1959 []. Several other studies [review or book] suggested that the lipid bilayer has fluid-like properties with lipids and proteins floating in it. Studies of proteins present in erythrocytes membrane and that extracted from other membranes led Singer and Nicolson to classify membrane proteins as peripheral and integral proteins; and finally proposing the Fluid Mosaic Model in 1972 []. This is the most accepted model describing the structure of a cell membrane. According to this model, mosaic of protein molecules is embedded within the fluid of lipid bilayer which is supported by the freeze-fracture studies of the plasma membrane (Figure). Composition of Membranes Membrane Lipids The lipid bilayer is only 5 to 10nm thick organized in distinct regions primarily attributed to the hydrophobic effect caused due to the amphipathic nature of these molecules with both polar and the non-polar regions (Figure). The interactions of these regions with the aqueous environment have been studied with various techniques like x-ray reflectometry,[1] neutron scattering[2HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid_bilayer#cite_note-Zaccai1975-1] and nuclear magnetic resonance. In order to exclude the non-polar regions from the aqueous environment, lipid molecules arrange in such a manner so that the hydrophobic tails point inwardly towards each other and the polar head groups are exposed on the outside facing the water. The outermost region on either side of the bilayer is completely hydrated and is typically around 8-9Ã… thick. The hydrophobic core of the bilayer is typically 3-4  nm thick. The intermediate region is partially hydrated and is approximately 3 Ã… thick. These lipid molecules arrange spontaneously naturally or artificially in solution to form structures like micelles and liposomes (Figure). Micelles are monolayer spherical structures formed by lipid molecules in aqueous environment. On the other hand, liposomes are concentric bilayer of fluid-filled vesicles surrounding the water compartment on both the surfaces. The membrane of the animal cells is composed primarily of three major types of lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids and cholesterol with phospholipids being the most abundant (Figure). The polar head groups of these phospholipids contain a phosphate group and either a glycerol (known as phosphoglycerides) or sphingosine. There are four major phospholipids present in the animal cells, three are phosphoglycerides namely phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine; and the fourth sphingomyelin is the only sphingolipid. The heads of glycolipids contain a sphingosine with one (known as cerebroside) or more sugars (known as ganglioside) attached to it. Cholesterol is a sterol molecule with a small hydrophilic hydroxyl group and a rigid ring structure that stabilizes the bilayer. Membrane Proteins The membrane consists of different types of proteins accounting for 25-75% of the mass of the membrane and are categorized based on their interactions with the lipid bilayer (Figure). Moreover, the manner in which a protein is associated with the membrane is indicative of its function. Integral or intrinsic proteins are embedded with in the lipid bilayer. These could be transmembrane proteins spanning the entire length of the bilayer and possess hydrophobic domains which are anchored to hydrophobic lipids and hydrophilic domain interacting with external molecules. They could have only one membrane-spanning (single pass transmembrane proteins, e.g. glycophorin) or multispanning (multi-pass transmembrane proteins, e.g. band3 protein of erythrocyte) segments. The transmembrane segments have helical e.g. bacteriorhodopsin or ÃŽÂ ²- barrel structures. These proteins can be extracted from the phospholipid bilayer only by disrupting the hydrophobic interactions by using detergents like S DS or Triton-X 100. Peripheral or the extrinsic proteins, on the other hand, are loosely bound to the hydrophilic lipid and protein groups on the surface of the membrane by weak ionic interactions. These can be easily removed with high salt or extreme pH without disrupting the phospholipid bilayer. Lipid-anchored proteins are covalently bound to lipid molecule which in turn anchors the protein in the cell membrane. The lipid can be phosphatidylinositol, a fatty acid or a prenyl group. Membrane Carbohydrates Carbohydrate moieties are present on the non-cytoplasmic surface of the membrane covalently attached to either protein or lipid molecules forming glycoproteins or glycolipids. These carbohydrates help in orientation of protein molecules on the cell surface and sorting in cellular compartments. The glycocalyx or the cell coat is the layer of carbohydrates on the cell surface that protects it and participates in the cell-cell interaction. The carbohydrates of the glycolipids of the erythrocytes membrane determine the ABO blood groups in human. Fluidity of Membranes Under physiological conditions, phospholipid molecules in the membrane are in the liquid crystalline state and the molecules are not physically attached to each other so, they can move within the bilayer. These movements could be within a monolayer i.e. rotational and lateral or between two layers i.e. flip-flop. Flip-flop movements are rare and slower compared to the other two as it requires energy for a lipid molecule to traverse from one layer to the other. Besides, some proteins also move in the membrane as concluded from studies based on human-mouse cell hybrids produced by fusion of human and mouse cells [Frye and Michael Edidin in 1970] and FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) experiments (Figure). Fluidity in the cell membrane is attributed to its lipid composition. The cis-unsaturated fatty acids with kinks in their hydrocarbon tails and shorter lengths of the tails increase the fluidity by preventing the ordered packing of phospholipids in the bilayer. Cholesterol molecules present in the bilayer affects its fluidity differently at different temperatures because of its rigid ring structure. It reduces the fluidity by decreasing the movement of adjacent phospholipids but at low temperatures, it increases the fluidity by preventing solidification [Alberts]. Fluidity of the membrane allows different molecules like proteins to interact with each other to perform various processes like transport of molecules and cell signalling. Moreover, membrane fluidity is required for various cellular processes like cell movement and cell division. Asymmetry of Membranes The two leaflets, that is, the inner and the outer monolayer portions of the lipid bilayer differ in their physical and chemical properties. This is due to the asymmetric organization of the various components of the membrane. For example, glycolipids and glycoproteins are always present on the non-cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane. Membrane regions differ in their lipid composition. The outer leaflet contains predominantly phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin whereas, the inner leaflet contains phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine. The inner leaflet also consists of phosphatidylinositol which play a key role in the transfer of stimuli from the plasma membrane to the cytoplasm [Cooper]. The membrane proteins also differ in their distribution in the two leaflets. For example, spectrin and ankyrin are present on the inner surface of the erythrocytes membrane forming a fibrillar membrane skeleton. GPI-anchored proteins ar present on the external surface of the membr ane. The asymmetry of the membrane suggested different roles played by the components of the membrane present on the two surfaces (Figure eg intestinal epithelial cell membrane:Tight junction , lateral movements). Lipid Rafts The plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells have specialized regions known as lipid rafts which differ in their composition from the rest of the membrane. These detergent-resistant and heterogeneous microdomains are rich in cholesterol, sphingolipids and certain proteins. Lipids in these rafts are more highly ordered and tightly packed as compared to the rest of the lipid bilayer. Various studies have attributed diverse roles like in transport of cholesterol, endocytosis, signal transduction, intracellular trafficking and neural development and function to these lipid rafts. Caveolae is an example of lipid rafts which are the invaginated domains in the plasma membrane. In caveolae, a protein caveolin is associated with the cholesterol in the lipid raft. It plays roles in membrane internalization and cell signaling. [Pike et al, 2002; Wary et al, 1998; Huang et al, 1999; Rothberg et al, 1992] (Review: Razani Lisanti, 2001. Exp. Cell Research 271: 36-44). Might not in endocytosis [Thompsen et al, 2002] see lipid rafts 4 references Functions of membranes: Membranes act as boundaries between the cell and its environment and are essential for maintaining the integrity of the cell and the various membrane-bound organelles within the cell, regulating the transport of materials into and out of the cell, responding to external and internal stimuli, and cell-to-cell recognition. The proteins present on the inner surface of the plasma membrane provides shape and maintains the integrity of the cell by anchoring the cytoskeleton found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm. The major component of the cytoskeleton of the most well studied erythrocyte membrane is the fibrous protein spectrin. This protein interacts with other peripheral proteins like ankyrin, actin and tropomyosin. Dystophin, a member of the spectrin family is found in the membrane skeleton of muscle cells. The importance of these proteins is suggested by the fact that mutations in dystrophin leads to muscular dystrophy. Regulated transport of materials across the membrane is due to the amphipathic nature of the lipid bilayer. Therefore, the membranes are selectively permeable and the ability of a molecule or ion to traverse the bilayer depends majorly on its polarity and also on the size. Non-polar molecules like O2, N2 and benzene and small polar molecules like H2O, glycerol, urea and CO2 can pass the membrane but large uncharged (e.g. glucose), polar molecules (e.g. sucrose) and ions (e.g. H+, Na+, HCO3, Clà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ) are not able to diffuse easily across membranes. Hence, various mechanisms are required for transport of materials across the membrane, including simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport for micromolecules and exocytosis and endocytosis for macromolecules. In simple diffusion, substances diffuse down their concentration gradient. In facilitated diffusion, movement of molecules down the concentration gradient is facilitated by channel and carrier proteins (e.g. glucose transporter). On the other hand, active transport requires energy to move solutes against their gradients and can be classified into primary or secondary active transport depending on the source of energy. The primary active transport depends on the hydrolysis of ATP and is of different types: P (e.g. Na+ K+ ATPase, Figure), F and V types and the ATP-binding cassette or ABC transporters. In secondary active transport, specific solute indirectly drives the active transport of another solute and does not involve the hydrolysis of ATP. Secondary active transport may include either symport (e.g. Na+/Glucose transporter) or antiport (Cl ­-/HCO3 exchanger). The macromolecules such as proteins and polysaccharides are transported by endocytosis (from inside the cell to th e outside) and exocytosis (from outside into the cell) (Figure). Cell membrane is also involved in cell-cell communication. Specialized membrane structures like gap junctions in animals and plasmodesmata in plants provide the cytoplasmic continuity between cells. Tight junctions and desmosomes help in attachment of a cell to other cells or the extracellular matrix forming tissues. Membrane also maintains cell potential by creating chemical and electrical gradient. Cell signaling: Signals through chemical messengers (chemical or electrical stimuli) acting on the membrane receptors most of them being proteins. These signals are then transduced in the cell leading to a cascade of events in the cell. Specific for different cells like Gprotein, Tyrosine-kinase receptors Peripheral proteins act as enzymes e.g. and receptors In summary, biological membranes are the complex and dynamic structures composed of variety of proteins embedded in the fluid of the lipid bilayer. The amphipathic nature of the lipid bilayer and the diversity of membrane proteins are responsible for the involvement of biological membranes in large number of cellular processes.

The History Of Extreme Programming

The History Of Extreme Programming Extreme Programming (XP) is a software engineering methodology that has been formulated in 1996 by Kent Beck. It is a lightweight development methodology, XP is one of several popular agile processes. XP has received fair media attention, and is most renowned for its practices that are sometimes regarded as controversial, such as pair programming and test-driven development. It has already been proven to be very successful because it reaches to the customer satisfaction. Instead of delivering everything at the same time the XP focus on some date far in the future, this process delivers the software you need as you need it, in other words Extreme Programming empowers the developers to confidently respond to changing customer requirements, even late in the project development life cycle. The philosophy of Extreme Programming is teamwork, in other words Managers, Customers and Developers are all equal partners in a collaborative team. The implement is simple regarding Extreme Programmin g, yet effective environment enabling teams to become productive. XP is built on four values: Communication: Extreme programmers constantly communicate with their customers and fellow programmers. Simplicity: The keep their design simple and clean. Feedback: They get feedback by testing their software starting on day one Courage/ Respect: They deliver the system to the customers as early as possible and implement changes as suggested. Every small success deepens their respect for the unique contributions of each and every team member. The main differences with Extreme Programming is that it accepts that humans are imperfect and builds a process that not only accepts progressive elaboration, but makes this reality a central theme to all of its other practices. There is also recognition that the proscribed practices in the real world can be very challenging, to overcome this difficulty the practices interlock and complement each other. With this tools that have been mention the Extreme Programming are able to courageously respond to changing requirements and technology. Figure1: Extreme Programming Overview [1] http://www.extremeprogramming.org/ 12 practices of Kent Beck used in an XP project: There are strong relationships between XP and its practices. Without practices its not XP, and without practicing the practices of XP it cannot deliver benefits. Figure2: Dependencies between the 12 practices of XP 1) Planning Game: This is focused on determining requirements details. The customers and developers are both part of this. In a planning game the customers and the developers sit in a room together. They make plans for software releases and iterations together, identifying each role clearly. Planning game involves the making of story cards from each users point of view and splitting each story into task cards for individual developers then they make plans that take into consideration the volume of work and the schedule based on these cards. 2) Small Releases: In small releases developers put quickly a simple system into production, and then release new versions in a very short time. 3) Metaphor: In metaphor, developers in the team share story or understandings about how their programs work. 4) Simple Design: The system should be designed as simply as possible at any given moment. Keep code simple and extra complexity is removed as soon as it is discovered. Always keep in mind the principle of YAGNI (You arent going to need it). 5) Testing Programmers continually write unit tests, which must run flawlessly for development to continue. Customers define test cases for system releases. 6) Refactoring: Without changing their behavior, improve the internal structures of programs. 7) Pair Programming: Production code which is actually used in the final product, is written with the celebration of two programmers at same machine. 8) Collective Ownership: Programming code is the property of few programmers it owned by the team collectively, and anyone can change code anywhere and at anytime. 9) Continuous Integration: Integrate and build the system many times in a day, every time a task is implemented. 10) 40-hour Week: This is the rule of XP that no work more than 40 hours. Never work overtime a second week in a row. 11) On-site Customer: In whole project include a real, live user on the team who is available fulltime on site to answer questions. 12) Coding Standards: Programmers write common rules to standardize coding styles in the team. XP has 4 basic activities, coding, testing, listening and designing, which are conducted by five major roles, programmer, customer, tester, tracker, and coach. Iteration is a key concept in XP. The time constant in the different iterations range from seconds to months. Figure3: Planning/feedback loops in XP [2][3] http://www.acis.org.co/fileadmin/Curso_Memorias/Curso_CMMI_Sep06/Modulo%202%20-%20Product%20Engineering%20/xp_rup.pdf (Article: Analysis of the Interaction between Practices for Introducing XP Effectivel by Osamu Kobayashi and Mitsuyoshi Kawabata) Comparing two methodologies: Comparing two methodologies requires some form of empirical studies, The framework used is a combination of 2 established frameworks, one is Zachmans which consists of the 6 categories what, how, where, who, when and why and the 2nd one is Checklands framework is called CATWOE and has six other categories. CATWOE is the abbreviation of Client, Actor, Transformation, World view, Owner, Environment. In the following table I combine the frameworks an an order to utilize the strengths of both: zechman Checkland what Transformation why? World view when where? Environment how? who? Client, Actor, Owner 1) What? The Rational Unified Process (RUP) is an iterative software development process framework created by the Rational Software Corporation. The Rational Software Corporation was acquired by IBM in 2003. RUP is a thick methodology; the whole software design process is described with high detail. RUP has evolved in conjunction with the Unified Modeling Language (UML). RUP is designed for large software projects. On the other hand XP has its origins in practical applications in projects during the 1990s; it is formulated by Kent Beck. XP is a lightweight methodology and used for small to medium sized software development teams. XP is intended to meet the demands of a context with unclear and volatile requirements. XP is not a commercial methodology unlike RUP. The origin of RUP and XP are similar. Both methodologies based on experience from software engineering and are evolved during the same decade, although RUP is bit older in age. There are two different underlying philosophies behind RUP and XP. RUP takes to a large extent a technical management perspective while XP is uses in development staff. RUP describes the whole software design process with high detail; RUP is a very complex methodology and is difficult to comprehend for both project managers and project members. Therefore, it is not the most appropriate software design methodology for most small projects. While XP is originally designed for small to medium sized projects, The distribution of the methodologies is different; RUP is a commercial product, no open or free standard. Before RUP can be used, the RUP has to be bought from IBM as an electronic software and documentation package while XP is freeware methodology and every one can use it freely. 2)Why? I analyze advantages and disadvantages of RUP and XP from different perspectives like what is the financial, technical and social aspect of these methodologies on each other. 2.1) Financial: Financial issues of both RUP and XP are different. Rup is a commercial product not open or free standard and owned by IBM, one should buy RUP from IBM as an electronic software and documentation package then it is available to use while XP offers the freeware solution and open to use for everyone, which is financially an advantage. 2.2) Technical perspective When we compare these 2 methodologies from technical perspective, RUP provides the organization a large amount of development tools and documents. It is delivered online via the web, and updated in new releases, all information about the software development methodology is available at the project members fingertips. Also, the newest version of RUP is always present on the computer of each team member. On the other hand XP leads to simplicity it is more user friendly, it is not specific to a single tool but its depends on the user choice that which tool he wants to use and which to reject. 2.3) Social perspective: The social perspective of RUP and XP are also related to the commercial versus freeware discussion. The selection on of methodology is depends on the software development company requirements and needs. Small and medium size software development companies like to use XP because of its free availability on the other hand larger software development companies take interest to buying software licenses, and hence buying licenses for methodology is quite natural. Extent RUP includes a large amount of formal process paperwork, role description and documentation etc it is also because of these properties called heavy weight or thick methodology while XP is very lightweight or thin methodology, both in its presentation and in the practical applications. The following table shows the difference in extent of the RUP and XP, there all the roles of an XP project are presented, with their counterparts in RUP, constituting a small subset of the RUP roles. In total, RUP comprises more than 80 major artifacts, 150 activities and 40 roles. Team XP roles RUP roles Customer team Customer Requirements specifier System analyst Project manager Tracker Tester Test analyst Tester Test system administrator Development team Programmer Implementer Designer Integrator System administrator Coach In summary, RUP is a much more extensive methodology than XP, for good and for bad. [2]http://www.acis.org.co/fileadmin/Curso_Memorias/Curso_CMMI_Sep06/Modulo%202%20-%20Product%20Engineering%20/xp_rup.pdf Project drivers RUP is use case driven, i.e. descriptions of use of the system are implemented, and continuously integrated and tested. XP applies test-driven design, i.e. test case are derived and implemented before the code is written. XP has user stories to guide what to implement. These user stories are less extensive descriptions, compared to the RUP use cases, where the complete scenario for the interaction between the user and the system is defined. Regarding planning, both methodologies agree on that a complete project cannot be planned in detail. RUP proclaims continuous changes in the plans, while XP advocates planning only the very near future in detail.

Risk Essay -- essays research papers

(1) The following study discusses the risk & resilient factors in the life of Pauline, a 16 year old NZ European/Maori teenager. These factors involve her family life and its importance to her: the value of education and the consequences of leaving school without qualifications; how activities such as church participation can be helpful and the problems involved with having nothing to do; the effects of substance abuse; early sexual involvement and its risks; the risk of suicide, suicide attempts & ideation. The likely impacts of all of these factors on her current & future health status will be considered. Key words or concepts: resilience or protective factors: is factors that buffer young people from risks & promote positive youth development. Risk behaviours: dangerous behaviour that involves a threat to health & well being adolescence: the developmental period between childhood and adulthood mentor: someone whom the young person can trust connectedness: feeling cared for, close to and enjoying either family, school or an adult mentor. The study will follow the format using the HEADSS framework. This was d evised in 1972 by Eric Cohen, a Specialist in adolescent medicine in Los Angeles. It is a method used to interview & assess young people & is an acronym for the following; - (H) home environment (E) education & employment (A) activities & interests (D) drugs (S) sexuality (S) suicide   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (2) Home Pauline has a number of risk and protective factors happening for her in her home situation. Until the age of three years she was the focus of her own two parents. At the age of sixteen she is positioned between her Father’s new family of a partner & three very young children (who Pauline lives with) and her Mother, partner and their two young children. She has expressed dissatisfaction regarding her irregular contact with her Mother who lives in another town. Early attachment in childhood sets the stage for acting out behaviours in adolescence (Brennan 1993). Pauline clearly felt nobody cared for her, that her Father was more interested in her stepmother and children, she felt this so strongly it led her to running away from home. She was at risk... ...bsp;(9) Summary This study indicates risk factors for Pauline including an unhappy home situation with her Dad’s new family where she has felt nobody really cared whether she was there or not, her unsatisfying relationship with her Mother, her alcohol binging, cigarette smoking & marijuana use, her limited activities, dropping out of school at a young age, early sexual involvement and low mood. Protective factors bringing some resilience to her life include adult trust with her Aunt Sarah and Tutor, awareness of her iwi links and whanau contact, her enjoyment and regular attendance to at Alternative Education and her goal of wanting to stay there until she gets a job, recent enjoyable church involvement, her ability to learn from situations and wanting to make positive changes in her life. The likely outcomes for Pauline’s health are hopeful but the significant concerns that could tip the equilibrium are firstly the early onset in her life of a relationship with Jack and their sporadic condom use, as a probable outcome for Pauline is pregnancy and wanting to keep the baby, and secondly her alcohol, marijuana and nicotine use and the level of addiction that may have built up.

Walker & Everyday Use Essay -- essays research papers

Many times an author draws from his or her personal life and incorporates his or her past into the short story. Alice Walker is one of the most respected, well-known African-American authors of her time. Alice Walker experienced a lifetime of hardship that would influence her later works, helping her to become such an astonishing author. In her short story "Everyday Use", Walker tells the story of her heritage and enables the reader to encounter the values in her life. On February 9, 1944 in Eatonton, Georgia, Willie Lee and Minnie Grant gave birth to their eighth child; a precious little girl whom they named Alice. As an extremely intelligent child Alice was always exploring the world around her. "She said that one of her favorite pastimes in the world was 'people watching.'" (http://members.tripod.com/chrisdanielle/alicebio_1.html). When Walker was eight years old, she and her brother were playing a game of cowboys and Indians outside when Alice's brother accidentally hit her in the eye with a BB pellet, blinding her in her right eye. Although that didn't stop Alice, she went on achieving excellent grades and going on to college. She first attended Spelman College (an African-American institution) on a handicap scholarship she'd been granted. Unhappy with the way Spelman's treated her for her involvement of activism and civil rights, she accepted a scholarship from Saint Lawrence College in New York. Alice was faced with great diff iculties such as abortion and suicide, but she pulled through and graduated in 1965 kicking off the begging of an unforgettable and ongoing career. (http://members.tripod.com/chrisdanielle/alicebio_1.html) By distinguishing the family-oriented round characters in the short story "Everyday Use", Alice Walker illustrates the common mistake of placing the association of heritage solely in material objects. Walker presents Mama and Maggie, the younger daughter, as an example that heritage in both knowledge and form passes from one generation to another through a learning and experience connection. However, by a broken connection, Dee, the older daughter, represents a misconception of heritage as materialistic. During Dee's visit to Mama and Maggie, the contrast of the characters becomes the conflict, because Dee... ... family values, Mama takes the quilts from Dee who "held the quilts securely in her arms, stroking them clutching them closely to her bosom" (Walker, 91) like sacred representation, and then gives them to their rightful owner: Maggie. After Mama gives Maggie the quilts, Dee says, "You just don't understand," "Your heritage" (Walker, 91). Dee believes heritage and family values to be materialistic things. Dee understands that the quilts were hand-made, but she lacks the knowledge and history behind these quilts. On the other hand Mama and Maggie understand the meaning of the quilts and know that they were made for everyday use. Ironically, Dee criticizes Mama for not understanding heritage when, in fact, Dee fails to really understand her own heritage. Dee mistakenly places heritage wholly in what she owns, not what she knows. Work-Cited Living By Grace. Danielle, Chris. 1999. Tripod. 03-10-2005. http://members.tripod.com/chrisdanielle/index.html Walker, Alice. "Everyday Use". Literature An Introduction to Reading and Writing Sixth Edition. Ed. Edgar V. Roberts and Henry E. Jacobs. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2001, 360-365. Walker & Everyday Use Essay -- essays research papers Many times an author draws from his or her personal life and incorporates his or her past into the short story. Alice Walker is one of the most respected, well-known African-American authors of her time. Alice Walker experienced a lifetime of hardship that would influence her later works, helping her to become such an astonishing author. In her short story "Everyday Use", Walker tells the story of her heritage and enables the reader to encounter the values in her life. On February 9, 1944 in Eatonton, Georgia, Willie Lee and Minnie Grant gave birth to their eighth child; a precious little girl whom they named Alice. As an extremely intelligent child Alice was always exploring the world around her. "She said that one of her favorite pastimes in the world was 'people watching.'" (http://members.tripod.com/chrisdanielle/alicebio_1.html). When Walker was eight years old, she and her brother were playing a game of cowboys and Indians outside when Alice's brother accidentally hit her in the eye with a BB pellet, blinding her in her right eye. Although that didn't stop Alice, she went on achieving excellent grades and going on to college. She first attended Spelman College (an African-American institution) on a handicap scholarship she'd been granted. Unhappy with the way Spelman's treated her for her involvement of activism and civil rights, she accepted a scholarship from Saint Lawrence College in New York. Alice was faced with great diff iculties such as abortion and suicide, but she pulled through and graduated in 1965 kicking off the begging of an unforgettable and ongoing career. (http://members.tripod.com/chrisdanielle/alicebio_1.html) By distinguishing the family-oriented round characters in the short story "Everyday Use", Alice Walker illustrates the common mistake of placing the association of heritage solely in material objects. Walker presents Mama and Maggie, the younger daughter, as an example that heritage in both knowledge and form passes from one generation to another through a learning and experience connection. However, by a broken connection, Dee, the older daughter, represents a misconception of heritage as materialistic. During Dee's visit to Mama and Maggie, the contrast of the characters becomes the conflict, because Dee... ... family values, Mama takes the quilts from Dee who "held the quilts securely in her arms, stroking them clutching them closely to her bosom" (Walker, 91) like sacred representation, and then gives them to their rightful owner: Maggie. After Mama gives Maggie the quilts, Dee says, "You just don't understand," "Your heritage" (Walker, 91). Dee believes heritage and family values to be materialistic things. Dee understands that the quilts were hand-made, but she lacks the knowledge and history behind these quilts. On the other hand Mama and Maggie understand the meaning of the quilts and know that they were made for everyday use. Ironically, Dee criticizes Mama for not understanding heritage when, in fact, Dee fails to really understand her own heritage. Dee mistakenly places heritage wholly in what she owns, not what she knows. Work-Cited Living By Grace. Danielle, Chris. 1999. Tripod. 03-10-2005. http://members.tripod.com/chrisdanielle/index.html Walker, Alice. "Everyday Use". Literature An Introduction to Reading and Writing Sixth Edition. Ed. Edgar V. Roberts and Henry E. Jacobs. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2001, 360-365.

Narrative Essay :: My Grandpa

"Hello," I stated as I hopped through the door to my grandparent's home without even a knock. My grandma looked up from the book she was reading in her cozy corner chair, "Well, hello there" "Where is grandpa?" I asked as I leaned down to brush my lips across the soft wrinkled cheek of my elderly grandma. "Who's there?" a familiar deep, rough voice sounded from the next room. Smiling I skipped through the kitchen and into a long dimly lit room filled with bookcases, couches, a dining room table and a grand piano. My grandpa, across the room, was surrounded by music stands and piles of sheet music. His trusty violin was in one hand and the long wooden bow with the horse hair strings, that I was always warned never to touch, was in the other. As I walked toward the figure across the room, I noticed his full head of snowy white hair glowing in the dark room. Over his short stocky body hung a green dress shirt and a fuzzy cardigan sweater. He wore slacks held up awkwardly by a belt allowing his small potbelly to hang over it. His face hardly showed the years of worry and stress, but his white bushy eyebrows and growing second chin showed his old age. His smile greeted me. As I drew close to him, his aging arms reached out and wrapped around my body pulling me into a warm loving hug. As he released me from the hug, I said, "Grandpa, I learned a new song I want you to hear." I plopped down on the hard piano bench, and my fingers flowed over the keys. My foot pumped the cold pedal, and the room was magically filled with tones, one after another slowly warming the room. Looking up at my grandfather's soft, blue eyes I saw him crack a smile and nod with encouragement. Soon his violin found its way to its familiar spot between my grandpa's shoulder and his unshaven chin. He swayed slightly as his arm moved the bow across the strings of the violin producing a harmony to the melody I was performing. With a long last note, we both dropped our hands to our sides allowing the music, which had just filled the room with its thick tone, to abruptly end. The room was left in a dead silence, frozen for a brief period of time, as we recovered from the intensity of the piece.

Restorative Justice and Restitution Essay

Restorative Justice and Restitution Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Morals and values are considered to be the same to majority of the people in the society. Values or ethics, however is considered to be the standards that are set within a society and portrays how the views of other people can be considered to be right or wrong, either at the workplace, in the social circles or even nationally (Van Ness, & Strong, 2013). Morals on the other hand are considered to be independent to every individual since they originate from matters of belief, choices and religion. Morals deal with the making of either right or wrong, fair or unfair decisions, honest or dishonest choices that have a direct impact on the religion or belief of an individual (Zehr, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The theories of morality that play a role in this case include the theory of utilitariansm, whereby it is considered to be morally good for the majority (Zehr, Mika, & Umbreit, 1997). The other theory is the theory of moral courage, which is considered to be to be the main pillar of ethics. Moral courage requires that one makes steadfast commitment to principles that are ethical and fundamental despite facing issues such as potential risks, shame, loss of reputation, isolation, emotional anxiety, retaliation and even loss of employment (Umbreit, 1989). Tough and morally right decisions have to be made despite the consequences.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The concept of restorative justice and restitution is an approach that is mainly focused on the various needs that victims of crime and the offenders have as well as the community within which people live in (Zehr, 2002). The aim and purpose of restorative justice and restitution is not just to satisfy the principles of the legal process or punishment to the offender but to satisfy the needs of the offenders as well as that of the victims (Van Ness, & Strong, 2013). The restorative justice and restitution is based on the theory of justice. This theory simply considers wrongdoing and crime as an offense that is committed against a community and an individual and not the state (Zehr, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The legal process, as much as its purpose is to serve justice where it is due, does not aim at increasing animosity and hatred in the society and hence the reason for restorative justice and restitution. It is important for people to live in harmony and get along (Zehr, Mika, & Umbreit, 1997). The process that is involved in restorative justice does not aim at benefiting the offender but to bring people together, the victims as well as the offenders and find peace and harmony in the society. Everyone in the society should be ready to support a process that encourages harmony and nit promote hatred and animosity hence restorative justice and restitution plays a major role in building a better society for the future (Umbreit, 1989).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The ethical issues that are related to the concept of restorative justice and restitution include the issue of forgiveness between the people that have been affected by the actions of the offender (Zehr, 2002). Another ethical issue that is involved with regard to restorative justice and restitution is that a crime is not committed against the state but rather against the victims and the society (Van Ness, & Strong, 2013). The needs in addition to the issues that the victims have as well as the offenders need to be considered to promote harmony in the society. The other ethical issue to be considered under restorative justice is whether offenders should be given a second chance in the society and allowed to make things right with the victims of their offenses (Umbreit, 1989).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Restorative justice also has its implications in the long run. The implications of restorative justice and restitution include increased accountability in the society; restoration and improvement of relationships in the society hence reduce chances of future offenses in terms of retaliations and revenge (Zehr, 2002). Furthermore, restorative justice has the implication of restoring trust and helping in the growth of long term relationships in the community and between the people involved in the whole process (Umbreit, 1989). Long-term safety and building of confidence is also another implication of restorative justice that will be achieved.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The approach that will be suitable in reaching the decision on whether to meet the convicted murder would be through counselling sessions for the family members and through seeking of information from people or families that have had an experience with restorative justice (Van Ness, & Strong, 2013). The needs and concerns of each family member will need to be addressed and find out their views about the meeting and what they would want done differently. Counselling sessions for the family members will help build their confidence and gradually acceptance of the loss of the loved one (Zehr, 2002). After the counselling sessions, regular meetings should be conducted with the family members to discuss on whether to allow for the meeting or to refuse the meeting.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The steps to undertake in approaching the decision making process will involve calling for a family meeting whereby all members should be present. Every family member is to be given a chance to air their views and their opinions based on the theory of moral courage and virtues (Umbreit, 1989). After the family meeting, it would be important to contact the member of the Victim’s Group and discuss the conditions under which the meeting would be held if it will take place and establish the final motive why the convict wants the meeting (Zehr, Mika, & Umbreit, 1997). After that, have another family meeting and analyze the findings based on moral values and in the spirit of restorative justice (Zehr, 2002). This will lead to a decision of meeting the convict since the benefits of the meeting outweigh lack of the meeting. The possible questions would only be two main questions and that includes: What exactly led the convict to commit the crime and did the victim deserve to die in such a manner? What would the convict have done if his situation was reversed?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Restorative justice and restitution is beneficial in the society and helps in avoiding continued criminality within a society. However, it should not be over exercised since criminals may tend to take advantage of the same to continue committing heinous crimes. The full force of the law should also play a major role in curbing crimes in the society. References Umbreit, M. S. (1989). Crime victims seeking fairness, not revenge: Toward restorative justice. Fed. Probation, 53, 52. Umbreit, M. S., Coates, R. B., & Kalanj, B. (1994). Victim meets offender: The impact of restorative justice and mediation (pp. 53-64). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press. Van Ness, D. W., & Strong, K. H. (2013). Restoring justice: An introduction to restorative justice. Newnes. Zehr, H. (2002). The little book of restorative justice. Intercourse, PA: Good books. Zehr, H., Mika, H., & Umbreit, M. (1997). Restorative justice: The concept. Corrections Today, 59, 68-71. Source document

The Role of Oracles and Dreams in Herodotus’ the History

usChristina Bramanti October 5, 2012 CLAS 20105 The Role of Oracles, and Dreams in Herodotus’ The History Throughout Herodotus’ The History, Oracles, and dreams play an important role. While the gods have almost no presence throughout the book, the Oracles and/or dreams are linked to many of the major events. We first encounter the Oracles in Book I, when Croesus asks the Oracles at Delphi if he should attack the Persians, the Oracle replies telling him (in a very ambiguous way) that if he fights, he will destroy a great empire (7. 12).Unbeknownst to Croesus, the empire he will destroy will be his own. However, this answer from the Oracle is one of the things that convinces Croesus to attack Persia, in a manner jumpstarting the war. It could be that Croesus was always fated to destroy his empire, for the Pythia said, â€Å"Fate that is decreed, no one can escape, not even a god. Croesus has paid for the offense of his ancestor† (1. 91). This was important to reme mber throughout the book. Whether Herodotus believed it or not, the Oracles and Magi believed that one could neither change nor escape fate.In Book VII, the Oracles tell the Athenians that a wall of wood and Salamis will save Athens. When the Athenians first consulted the Pythia at Delphi, whose name was Aristonice, their demise was foretold. They asked for a different oracle. â€Å"My Lord,† they asked, â€Å"give us a better oracle about our fatherland; be moved to pity the suppliant boughs with which we come before you, or we will never go away from your shrine but remain right here till we die† (7. 141). The priestess replied: No: Athena cannot appease great Zeus of Olympus With many eloquent words and all her cunning counsel.To you I declare again this word, and make it as iron: All shall be taken by foemen, whatever within his border Cecrops contains, and whatever the glades of sacred Cithaeron. Yet to Tritogeneia hall Zeus, loud-voiced, give a present, A wall of wood, which alone shall abide unsacked by the foemen; Well shall it serve yourselves and your children in days that shall be. Do not abide the charge of horse and foot that come on you, A mighty host from the landward side, but withdraw before it. Turn your back in retreat; on another day you shall face them.Salamis, isle divine, you shall slay many children of women, Either when seed is sown or again when the harvest is gathered. (Herodotus, 1. 141) The Athenians argued about what this meant, whether they will be victorious or defeated at Salamis. Themistocles concluded that, if the oracle referred to Salamis as â€Å"isle divine† that must mean that the Greeks would be victorious, because, he argued, it would have been referred to as â€Å"O Cruel Salamis† if all of its inhabitants were going to die. He then convinced the men to prepare for a sea battle. The ‘wall of wood’ would be their ships.The Athenians agreed with Themistocles, if, for no other rea son, than his explanation sounded better than that offered by the oracle-interpreters. Hope, they saw, was better than despair. In this instance, the Oracles do offer some idea of what will come, but the oracle-interpreters, whose purpose is to interpret, are essentially ignored. Themistocles heard what was said and picked out a phrase by which he explained the rest of the prophecy. The Athenians believed what they wanted to believe, which was that Salamis would be a Greek victory, and the ships made up the wall of wood to which the Oracle referred.While the Athenians do not listen to what the oracle-interpreters had to say, they did take to heart what was told to them by the Oracle, and this led to many of the Greek peoples uniting—Argos sided with Persia; Gelon of Syracuse refused to help unless he could lead, thereby offending the Spartans; Corcyra assembled men and ships and went to the war, but sat on the sidelines watching; and Crete refused to join. The united Greece, led by Leonidas, decided to fight at Thermopylae, where Leonidas was killed. However, after this, the war goes to Salamis, where the Greeks, surrounded, battle the Persians, forcing Xerxes to retreat with his army.Dreams also play a particular role in Herodotus’ The History. Like the Oracles, dreams influence people to make certain decisions. And like the situations with the Oracles, fate also plays a role. These people had these specific dreams because they were fated to make said decisions. The dreams, possibly, were the only ways to convince them, or to ensure that fate run its course. So was the case with Astyages, who dreamt of his daughter, Mandane, â€Å"making water so greatly that she filled all his city and flooded†¦all of Asia† (1. 107). Astyages immediately went to visit the Magi who were dream interpreters.Fearing that this meant she would have more powerful offspring, he married her, not to a Mede, but to a lesser, Persian man. However, fate would no t back down. After his daughter was married to the Persian, Astyages had another dream. â€Å"†¦It seemed to him that out of his daughter’s privy parts there grew a vine, and the vine shaded all Asia† (1. 108). Astyages again went to dream interpreters among the Magi, who suggested that this dream meant that Mandane – who was now, in fact, pregnant – would have a child who would become king in the place of Astyages. This is the point in the story where fate really comes into play.Much like the story of Oedipus, attempting to control or otherwise act in a way opposed to, fate seems to be exactly what allows for fate to run its course. Astyages takes the child, a son, when it is born and hands him over to a kinsman, Harpagus, and orders Harpagus to kill the child. Harpagus agrees, but cannot bring himself to do such a thing. Harpagus, in turn, hands the child over to Mitradates, a slave herdsmen of Astyages. Harpagus also passes on the task of murderin g the child. When Mitradates gets home with the child, he tells his wife, Cyno, the task with which he had been charged.Cyno, however, had given birth that day to a child who was stillborn, and she suggested that they place the dead child on the mountain to ‘die’ and raise Mandane’s child as their own. This way, they still get to raise a child, and the innocent boy is not killed. By removing the child from his mother, and handing him over to his death, Astyages is creating the path for which the foreseen future can now happen. One day, the boy was playing with children in town and they named him their king, and he reprimanded one of the children, a son of a man of higher rank than his herdsman father.They were all brought before Astyages, and this is how he came to learn that the boy had not been killed. When the Astyages learned that the boy, who would be called Cyrus, but was not yet at this time called Cyrus, was still alive, at first he was angry with Harpagu s, and he killed Harpagus’ son and fed his flesh to Harpagus. Then, after consulting with the Magi, he believed that the dream had already come true, since the boy was named king. â€Å"As it is,† the Magi told him, â€Å"the dream has issued in something trifling; we are ourselves quite confident and bid you be the same.So send the boy away from your sight to the Persians and his parents† (1. 120). When Astyages sent the boy away to live with his true parents, Harpagus watched him grow into a man, and when Cyrus was a young man, Harpagus sent him a message, suggesting that he overthrow Astyages, for he [Astyages] had ordered Cyrus’ death. Had it not been for himself and the gods, Harpagus argued, Cyrus would have been murdered when he was an infant. In this way, the dream explained by the Magi came to be fulfilled. In Book VII, Xerxes dreams of a man coming to him and reprimanding him for his indecision. Are you changing your mind, Persian, and will not lead your army against Greece after you have bidden the Persians to gather their host? † the man asks Xerxes. â€Å"You will not do well, so to alter your counsel, now will he who stands before you prove forgiving. As you have resolved by day to do, that is the road for you to tread† (1. 153). Thomas Harrison, in his book, Divinity and History: The Religion of Herodotus, argues that misinterpretation of the Oracles was the rule, rather than the exception. Harrison essentially discredits the oracles because they are so ambiguous. Not only do such instances of mistaken interpretation reinforce†¦the fated nature of the eventual outcome, but at the same time they supply their audience with the tools to explain apparent non-fulfillment: the story of Croesus serves to illustrate both the possibility of fulfillment against one’s expectations and†¦that of dormant oracles, long forgotten, being fulfilled nonetheless. † To a point, this makes sense. The Ora cles are constantly, it seems almost intentionally, ambiguous, and the message is almost always misinterpreted, often times to the listener’s detriment.The Oracles and dreams play a crucial role in Herodotus’ The History. The book is driven mostly by reactions to things either heard from an Oracle, or experienced in a dream. Sometimes trying—unsuccessfully—to change what was foretold, and sometimes trying cause what is believed to be the meaning. Fate, however, has run its course. No matter how many times someone tried to change what was prophesied, whatever they did to change it just ended up being the cause of that which was trying to be avoided.